GNSS remote sensing : theory, methods and applications / Shuanggen Jin, Estel Cardellach, Feiqin Xie

Includes bibliographical references and index.

Part I GNSS Theory and Delays
1 Introduction to GNSS
1.1 GNSS History
1.1.1 GPS
1.1.2 GLONASS
1.1.3 GALILEO.
1.1.4 Beidou/COMPASS
1.1.5 Other Regional Systems
1.2 GNSS Systems and Signals
1.2.1 GNSS Segments
1.2.2 GNSS Signals
1.3 GNSS Theory and Errors
1.3.1 GNSS Principle.
1.3.2 GNSS Error Sources.
1.4 GNSS Observations and Applications
1.4.1 GNSS Observation Network .
1.4.2 GNSS Applications
References
2 GNSS Atmospheric and Multipath Delays
2.1 Atmospheric Refractivity
2.2 GNSS Atmospheric Delays
2.2.1 Neutral Atmospheric Delays.
2.2.2 Empirical Tropospheric Models
2.3 GNSS Ionospheric Delay
2.3.1 The Ionosphere
2.3.2 GNSS Ionospheric Delay
2.3.3 Empirical Ionospheric Models
2.4 GNSS Multipath Delay
2.4.1 Multipath Effects
2.4.2 Multipath Variations
2.4.3 Surface Reflection Characteristics
Part II GNSS Atmospheric Sensing and Applications
3 Ground GNSS Atmospheric Sensing
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Theory and Methods
3.2.1 Estimates of GNSS ZTD
3.2.2 Mapping Functions
3.3 ZTD Estimate and Variations
3.3.1 ZTD Estimates from IGS Observations
3.3.2 Multi-Scale ZTD Variations
3.4 GNSS Precipitable Water Vapor
3.4.1 GNSS PWV Estimate
3.4.2 Comparison with Independent Observations
3.4.3 Mean PWV Characteristics
3.4.4 Seasonal PWV Variations
3.4.5 Diurnal PWV Variations .
3.5 3-D Water Vapor Topography
3.6 Summary
References
4 Ground GNSS Ionosphere Sounding
4.1 History
4.2 GNSS Ionospheric Sounding
4.2.1 DCB Determination
4.2.2 TEC Estimate
4.3 2-D lonopspheric Mapping
4.3.1 Method of 2-D Ionospheric Mapping
4.3.2 Applications of 2-D GNSS TEC
4.4. 3-D GNSS Ionospheric Mapping.
4.4.1 3-D Ionospheric Topography
4.4.2 Validation of GNSS Ionospheric Tomography .
4.4.3 Assessment of IRI-2001 Using GNSS Tomography
4.4.4 Ionospheric Slab Thickness
4.4.5 3-D ionospheric Behaviours to Storms References
5 Theory of GNSS Radio Occultation
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 Radio Occultation in Planetary Sciences
5.1.2 GNSS Radio Occultation in Earth Sciences
5.2 Principle of GNSS Radio Occultalion.
5.2.1 Atmospheric Refraction
5.2.2 Geometric Optics Approximation
5.2.3 Spherically Symmetric Atmosphere Assumption
5.2.4 Bending Angle and Refractive Index
5.3 GNSS Radio Occultation Processing
5.3.1 Calibrating and Extracting GNSS RO Observables
5.3.2 Bending Angle Retrieval
5.3.3 Ionosphere Retrieval
5.3.4 Neutral Atmosphere Retrieval
Atmospheric Sensing Using GNSS RO
6.1 GNSS RO Atmospheric Sounding
6.1.1 Parameters Retrieval from GNSS RO
6.1.2 Dry Atmosphere Retrieval (Density, Pressure and Temperature)
6.1.3 Moist Atmosphere Retrieval
6.1.4 1D-Var (Variational Method).
6.2 Characteristics of GNSS RO Observations
6.2.1 Spatial Resolution (Vertical and Horizontal Resolution)
6.2.2 Accuracy and Precision Analysis
6.2.3 Measurement Errors
6.2.4 Calibration Errors
6.2.5 Retrieval Errors
6.2.6 Experimental Validation of RO Accuracy and Precision
6.3 Dynamic Processes Studies with GNSS RO
6.3.1 Tropopause and Stratospheric Waves
6.3.2 Tropical Tidal Waves
6.3.3 Weather Front
6.3.4 Tropical Cyclones (TC)
6.3.5 Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ABL)
6.4 Weather Prediction Applications
6.4.1 GNSS RO Data Assimilation
6.4.2 Operational Assimilation of GNSS RO
in NWP Models
6.5 Climate Applications
6.6 Future Application of Radio Occultation
6.6.1 Future GNSS and GNSS RO Missions
6.6.2 Airborne and Mountain-Top GNSS RO
6.6.3 LEO-to-LEO Occultation
Ionospheric Sounding Using GNSS-RO
7.1 Introduction.
7.2 Ionospheric Inversion
7.2.1 Ionosphere Inversion Based on Doppler
7.2.2 Ionosphere Inversion Based on TEC.
7.2.3 Recursive Inversion of TEC
7.2.4 Amplitude Inversion
7.3 Error Analysis
7.3.1 Measurement Errors
7.3.2 Data Processing Errors .
7.4 Ionospheric Products
7.5 GNSS-RO Ionospheric Applications
7.5.1 Establishing Ionospheric Mo
7.5.2 Ionospheric Tomography
7.5.3 Monitoring Ionospheric Anomalies.
7.5.4 Ionospheric Scintillation
Reference?
Part III GNSS Reflectometry and Remote Sensing
8 Theory of GNSS Reflectometry
8.1 Introduction.
8.2 Multi-static System: Geometry and Coverage
8.3 Specular and Diffuse Scattering
8.4 Delay and Doppler
8.5 Reflectivity Levels and Polarization Issues
8.6 Scattering Theories
8.6.1 Kirchhoff or Tangent Plane Approximation (KA)
8.6.2 Summary of Other Methods
8.6.3 Received GNSS Scattered Fields
8.6.4 The Bi-static Radar Equation for GNSS
Modulated Signals.
8.7 Noise and Coherence Issues
8.8 Systematic Errors
8.9 PARIS Interferometric Technique (PIT)
8.10 Observables
References
Ocean Remote Sensing Using GNSS-R
9.1 Altimetry.
9.1.1 Group Delay Altimetry
9.1.2 Atmospheric Corrections.
9.1.3 GNSS-R Ocean Altimetric Performance
9.2 Ocean Surface Roughness
9.2.1 Surface Modelling
9.2.2 Retrieval Approaches
References
10 Hydrology and Vegetation Remote Sensing.
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Hydrology GNSS-Reflectometry. 10.3 Hydrology Sensing from GNSS-R
10.3.1 Waveform Correlation
10.3.2 Interference Pattern Technique (IPX). 10.3.3 Hydrology Sensing from GNSS
10.3.4 GNSS-R Scattering Properties
10.3.5 GNSS-R Polarization
10.4 GNSS-R Forest Biomass Monitoring 10.5 Summary
References
11 Cryospheric Sensing Using GNSS-R
11.1 Dry Snow Monitoring
11.1.1 Dry Snow Reflection Model: Multiple-Ray
Single-Reflection
11.1.2 Dry Snow Observable: Lag-Hologram
11.2 Wet Snow Monitoring,
11.2.1 Observations from Space-Home GNSS-R .
11.2.2 Observations from Ground GNSS-R
11.3 Sounding the Sea Ice Conditions
References
12 Summary and Future Chances
12.1 Status of GNSS Remote Sensing
12.1.1 Atmospheric Sensing
12.1.2 Ocean Sensing
12.1.3 Hydrology Sensing
12.1.4 Cryosphere Mapping
12.2 Future Developments and Chances
12.2.1 More GNSS Networks and Constellations
12.2.2 Advanced GNSS Receivers
12.2.3 New Missions and Systems
12.2.4 New and Emerging Applications