Critical thinking: an appeal to reason/
Peg Tittle
- New York: Routledge, 2011.
- 442 p.
1 Critical Thinking 1.1 What is critical thinking? 1.2 What is critical thinking not? 1.3 Why is critical thinking important? 1.4 Why do we typically not think critically? (why do we need a course in critical thinking?) 1.5 Template for critical analysis of arguments Review of terms Thinking critically about what you see Thinking critically about what you hear Thinking critically about what you read Thinking critically about what you write Thinking critically when you discuss Reasoning test questions 2 The Nature of Argument 2.1 The nature of argument 2.2 Recognizing an argument 2.3 Identifying implied conclusions and unstated premises (assumptions) 2.4 Circular arguments (an error in reasoning) 2.5 Counterarguments 2.6 Identifying the issue of contention 2.7 The burden of proof 2.8 The appeal to ignorance (an error in reasoning) 2.9 Facts and opinions 2.10 Deductive and inductive argument Review of terms Thinking critically about what you see Thinking critically about what you hear Thinking critically about what you read Thinking critically about what you write Thinking critically when you discuss Reasoning test questions The Structure of Argument 3.1 The structure of argument 3.2 Convergent, single 3.3 Convergent, multiple-separate 3.4 Convergent, multiple-linked 3.5 Divergent 3.6 Multi-structured arguments Review of terms Thinking critically about what you see Thinking critically about what you hear Thinking critically about what you read Thinking critically about what you write Thinking critically when you discuss Reasoning test questions 4 Relevance 4.1 Relevance 4.2 Errors of relevance: considering the source of the argument instead of the argument itself 4.2. ? Appeal to the person (ad bominem) 173 4.2.2 Genetic fallacy 120 4.3 Errors of relevance: appealing to an inappropriate standard 4.3.1 Appeal to inappropriate authority 124 4.3.2 Appeal to tradition or past practice 127 4.3.3 Appeal to custom, habit, or comrnon practice 130 4.3.4 Appeal to moderation (or lack of) 132 4.3.5 Appeal to popularity (or lack of) 136 4.3.6 "Two wrongs" 140 4.4 Errors of relevance: going off-topic 4.4.1 Paper tiger (also called the straw man fallacy) 143 4.4.2 Red herrhig 146 4.4.3 Non sequitur 148 4.4.4 Appeal to emotion 150 Review of terms Thinking critically about what you see Thinking critically about what you hear Thinking critically about what you read Thinking critically about what you write Thinking critically when you discuss Reasoning test questions 5 Language 5.1 Clarity 5.1.1 Precise diction 170 5.1.2 Precise grammar 174 5.1.3 Repetition 177 5.1.4 Detail 179 5.1.5 Beware of manipulation 182 5.2 Neutrality 5.2.1 Loaded language 183 5.2.2 Visual effects 188 5.2.3 Aural effects 193 5.2.4 Other effects 195 5.3 Definition 5.3.1 Genus and species 197 5.3.2 Necessary and sufficient conditions 199 5.3.3 Inclusiveness and exclusiveness 200 5.3.4 Equivocation (an error in reasonmg) 204 Review of terms Thinking critically about what you see Thinking critically about what you hear Thinking critically about what you read Thinking critically about what you write Thinking critically when you discuss Reasoning test questions 6 Truth and Acceptability 6.1 Truth and acceptability 6.1.1 Truth 219 6.1.2 Acceptability 220 6.2 How do we define truth? (theories of truth) 6.2.1 Subjectivism 226 6.2.2 The coherence theory 227 6.2.3 The correspofidence theojy 228 6.2.4 Pragmatism 229 6.3 How do we discover truth? 6.3.1 Irmate ideas andlor experience andlor reason? 229 6.3.2 Random personal experience 231 6.3.3 Methodical investigation: the scientific process 234 6.4 How do we evaluate claims of truth? 6.4.1 Evaluating personal testimony 242 6.4.2 Evaluating studies (surveys, experiments, numbers) 6.4.3 Evaluating sources 261 6.4.4 Evaluating images 265 6.5 Errors of truth 6.5.1 The either/or fallacy 270 6.5.2 The fallacy of composition 271 6.5.3 The fallacy of division 272 6.5.4 The gambler's fallacy 273 Review of terms Thinking critically about what you see Thinking critically about what you hear Thinking critically about what you read Thinking critically about what you write Thinking critically when you discuss Reasoning test questions 7 Generalization, Analogy, and General Principle 7.1 Sufficiency 7.2 Generalization 7.2.2 Overgeneralization {an error) 291 7.2.2 Insufficient sample (an error) 293 7.2.3 Unrepresentative sample (an error) 295 7.3 Analogy 7.3.1 Weak or false analogy (an error) 300 7.4 General principle 7.4.1 Misapplied general principle (an error) 306 Review of terms Thinking critically about what you see Thinking critically about what you hear Thinking critically about what you read Thinking critically about what you write Thinking critically when you discuss Reasoning test questions 8 Inductive Argument: Causal Reasoning 8.1 Causation 8.1.1 Correlation atid causation 327 8.1.2 Cause, time, and space 328 8.1.3 Direct and indirect causes 328 8.1.4 Necessary and sufficient causes 330 8.1.5 Mill's methods 331 8.2 Explanations 8.2.1 Alternative explanations 335 8.2.2 Good explanations 337 8.3 Predictions, plans, and policies 8.4 Errors in causal reasoning 8.4.1 Mistakmg correlation for causation 349 8.4.2 Post hoc ergo propter hoc 350 8.4.3 Failing to coiisider a common cause 352 8.4.4 Failing to consider additional causes 353 8.4.5 Reversing cause and effect 354 8.4.6 Failing to consider a reciprocal causal relation 356 8.4.7 Slippery slope 357 Review of terms Thinking critically about what you see Thinking critically about what you hear Thinking critically about what you read Thinking critically about what you write Thinking critically when you discuss Reasoning test questions Appendix 1 Extended Arguments for Analysis 1. "The new know-nothingism: five myths about immigration," by David Cole 2. "Rap and hip-hop's negative impact on society," by Joshua Smith 3. "In defense of negative campaigning," by William G. Mayer 4. "Television and violent crime," by Brandon S. Centerwall 5. "A crime by any other name," by Jeffrey H. Reiman and Paul Leighton 6. "Does society have the right to force pregnant drug addicts to abort their fetuses?," by George Schedler 7. "Condoms: the new diploma," by Rush Limbaugh 8. "It's OK to vote for Obama because he's black," by Gary Kamiya 9. "The argument for an obligation to assist," by Peter Singer 10. "All the reasons to clone human beings," by Simon Smith 11. "Why people watch reality TV," by Steven Weiss and James Wiltz 12. "If a tree falls . . letters by John Palmer and Eugene Tan, and "The economics of extinction," by Kent A. Peacock 13. House of Representatives debate on the "Personal Responsibilit in Food Consumption Act"