The evolution of parental care/
T.H. Clutton-brock
- New Jersey: Princeton university press, 1991.
- 352 p.
Parental Care and Competition for Mates 1.1 Parental Care and Sexual Selection 3 1.2 Parental Care And Competition for Mates 5 1.3 The Evolution of Parental Care 7 1.4 Definitions of Parental Care and Parental Investment 8 Forms of Parental Care 2.1 Introduction 13 2.2 Preparation of Nests, Burrows, or Territories 13 2.3 Production of Gametes 14 2.4 Care of Eggs 15 2.5 Care of Young without Provisioning from Sources outside the Egg Provisioning Young before Hatching or Birth Provisioning Young after Hatching or Birth 2.8 Care of Offspring after Nutritional Independence Social Assistance to Mature Offspring Summary The Costs of Breeding Introduction 31 3.2 Parental Expenditure 32 Correlations between Components of Fitness 34 3.4 The Limitations of Phenotypic Correlations 3.5 Experimental Manipulation of Parental Expenditure Negative Genetic Correlations between Fitness Components 43 Propagule Size vlii - CONTENTS 4.1 Introduction 49 4.2 How Large Should Propagules Be? 49 4.3 How Much Time Should Be Spent in the Egg? 54 4.4 Constraints on Propagule Size 57 4.5 Variation In Propagule Size 61 4.6 Egg Size and Parental Care 65 4.7 Is There a Single Optimal Propagule Size or an Optimal Range of Variation? 66 4.8 Summary 68 Viviparity 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Viviparity among Invertebrates 5.3 Viviparity In Fish 5.4 Viviparity in Amphibia 5.5 Viviparity in Reptiles 5.6 On the Absence of Viviparity in Birds 5.7 Viviparity in Mammals 6 Incubation, Gestation, and Lactation 6.1 Introduction 85 6.2 Body Size and the Duration of Development Periods 88 6.3 Incubation 89 6.4 Gestation and Age at Weaning 90 6.5 Lactation 92 6.6 Milk Composition 94 6.7 Summary 99 7 Parental Care in Ectotherms 7.1 Introduction 7.2 The Evolution of Parental Care by Males and Females 7.3 The Maintenance of Parental Care by Males and Females 7.4 Parental Care In Invertebrates 7.5 Parental Care in Fish Parental Care in Amphibia Parental Care in Reptiles Summary Parental Care in Birds and Mammals 8.1 Parental Care and Breeding Systems in Birds and Mammals 131 8.2 Models of Parental Care 140 8.3 Why Do Males Help in Biparental Species? 140 8.4 Why Don't Males Always Assist with Parental Care? 145 8.5 Why Do Males Agree to Being the Only Care-giver in Some Monogamous Species? 146 8.6 Why Do Males Agree to Polyandry? 147 8.7 Why Are Males Responsible for All Care in Some Polygynous Birds? 150 8.8 Summary 151 Parental Tactics 1: Variation in Care in Relation to Benefits 9.1 Introduction 155 9.2 Parental Care and Parent-Offspring Relatedness 157 9.3 Parental Care and Brood Size 158 9.4 Parental Care and Offspring Age 161 9.5 Parental Care and Offspring Quality 164 9.6 Brood Reduction 165 9.7 Brood Desertion 170 9.8 Summary 172 Parental Tactics 2: Variation in Care in Relation to Costs 10.1 Introduction 175 10.2 Parental Investment and Resource Availability 175 10.3 Reduced Reproductive Success in Young Breeders: Restraint or Constraint? 176 10.4 Reproductive Value and Terminal Investment 178 10.5 Parental Investment by Males and Access To Mating Partners 182 10.6 Parental Investment and Conflicts of Interest between Care-givers 183 10.7 Parental Decision Rules 188 10.8 Summary 190 Parent-Offspring Conflict 11.1 Introduction 193 12 X • CONTENTS 11.2 Parent-Offspring Conflict in Theory 193 11.3 Parent-Offspring Conflict in Practice: Predictions 201 11.4 Summary 206 Parental Investment in Sons and Daughters 12.1 Introduction 209 12.2 Does Parental Expenditure Have a Greater Effect on Fitness in Males or Females? 209 12.3 Parental Expenditure and Sex Differences in Early Growth 213 12.4 Energy Expenditure on Sons and Daughters 215 12.5 Reproductive Costs of Sons and Daughters 218 12.6 Sex Allocation or Differential Extraction? 221 12.7 Sex Differences in Parental Investment and the Population Sex Ratio 223 12.8 Summary 226 13 Sex Ratios and Differential Juvenile Mortality 13.1 Introduction 229 13.2 Sex Ratio Variation at Hatching or Birth 232 13.3 Sex Differences in Juvenile Mortality 242 13.4 Summary 252 14 Conclusions 14.1 Introduction 255 14.2 What Are the Benefits and Costs of Parental Care? 255 14.3 Why Does the Extent of Parental Care Vary so Widely among Species? 257 14.4 why Do Only Females Care for Eggs and Young in Some Species. Only Males in Others, and Both Parents in a Few? 258 14.5 To What Extent Is Parental Care Adjusted to Variation in Its Benefits to Offspring and Its Costs to Parents? 261 14.6 How Do Parents Divide Their Investment between Sons and Daughters? 262 14.7 Prospects 263