India Rural Development Report 2012-13/
IDFC Rural Development Network
- New Delhi: Orient Blackswan, 2013.
- 280
Chapter One: Rural Dynamics ........................................................................................................................3 1.1 Increased Blurring of Rural-Urban Boundaries...............................................................................3 1.2 Smallholder Farming Has Become the Bedrock of Rural Life .......................................................4 1.3 Increasing Agrarian Commercialisation and Risk ...........................................................................5 1.4 Rise in Rural Non-farm Employment: Distress or Opportunity?.................................................6 1.5 Th e Declining Role of the Agrarian Economy: Social and Political Consequences ....................7 1.6 Exploitation of Natural Resources ....................................................................................................8 1.7 Contours of Regional Inequality and Social Deprivation .............................................................10 1.8 Th e Gradual but Irrevocable Movement Towards Political Decentralisation ............................11 Chapter Two: Livelihoods.................................................................................................................................................... 17 2.1 Rural Income and Employment: Paradoxes, Challenges and Prospects.......................................................... 18 2.2 Features of the Agrarian Economy....................................................................................................................... 18 2.2.1 Phases of Agricultural Growth and Policy Interventions ..................................................................... 20 2.2.2 Growing Fragmentation of Landholdings .............................................................................................. 21 2.2.3 Shift Towards Commercial Farming and Livestock............................................................................... 22 2.2.4 Continued Prevalence of Dryland and Rainfed Farming ...................................................................... 23 2.3 Key Issues in Sustaining Farm Livelihoods......................................................................................................... 24 2.3.1 Land............................................................................................................................................................. 24 2.3.2 Access to Credit ......................................................................................................................................... 25 2.3.3 Lack of Productivity Breakthrough ......................................................................................................... 27 2.3.4 Increasing Cost of Cultivation.................................................................................................................. 27 2.3.5 Viability of Smallholder Farming ............................................................................................................ 28 2.3.6 Agricultural Marketing ............................................................................................................................. 29 2.4 Responding to a Changing Agrarian Economy .................................................................................................. 30 2.4.1 Sustainable Agriculture............................................................................................................................. 30 2.4.2 Collective Farming ..................................................................................................................................... 31 2.4.3 Diversification: Growth of Livestock....................................................................................................... 32 2.4.4 Insurance..................................................................................................................................................... 33 2.5 Significance of the Rural Non-farm Sector......................................................................................................... 33 2.5.1 Non-farm Sector is the Source of Most New Rural Jobs ..................................................................... 34 2.5.2 What is Driving Non-farm Growth? The Debate................................................................................. 34 2.5.3 Types of Non-farm Jobs and Key Trends............................................................................................... 35 2.5.4 The Marked Casualisation of the Labour Force..................................................................................... 38 2.5.5 The Evolving Social Dynamics of the Village......................................................................................... 38 2.6 Barriers to Rural Non-farm Livelihoods............................................................................................................. 39 2.6.1 Financial Exclusion.................................................................................................................................... 40 2.6.2 Marketing of Non-farm Products............................................................................................................ 41 2.6.3 Skills............................................................................................................................................................ 42 2.7 National Rural Livelihoods Mission (NRLM): Aajeevika................................................................................ 43 Chapter Three: Inclusion...................................................................................................................................................... 57 3.1 Growth, Poverty and Inequality ........................................................................................................................... 59 3.1.1 Growth in Real Consumption.................................................................................................................. 59 3.1.2 How is Growth Distributed?.................................................................................................................... 59 3.1.3 Trends in Inequality .................................................................................................................................. 59 3.1.4 Trends in Incidence of Poverty................................................................................................................. 61 3.1.5 Depth and Severity of Poverty ................................................................................................................. 63 3.1.6 Poverty Across States................................................................................................................................ 63 3.1.7 Poverty Among Social and Occupational Groups................................................................................. 65 3.1.8 How Responsive is Poverty to Growth?.................................................................................................. 67 3.1.9 What Does the Recent Consumer Expenditure Survey 2011–12 Reveal? ........................................ 68 3.2 Human Development............................................................................................................................................ 69 3.2.1 Human Development Index..................................................................................................................... 69 3.3 Education ................................................................................................................................................................ 71 3.3.1 Progress....................................................................................................................................................... 71 3.3.2 Demand for Private Education................................................................................................................. 74 3.3.3 Learning Outcomes................................................................................................................................... 74 3.3.4 What Affects Learning Outcomes? ......................................................................................................... 75 3.3.5 A Critical Review of Policies and Programmes...................................................................................... 77 3.4 Food and Nutritional Security ............................................................................................................................. 78 3.4.1 Nutritional Status...................................................................................................................................... 79 3.4.2 What Causes Poor Nutritional Outcomes Among Children............................................................... 80 3.4.3 Nutritional Security Interventions.......................................................................................................... 81 3.5 Health...................................................................................................................................................................... 81 3.5.1 The State of Rural Health ........................................................................................................................ 82 3.5.2 Regional Disparities in Health Status..................................................................................................... 84 3.5.3 Social Inequities in Nutrition and Health Outcomes........................................................................... 87 3.5.4 Challenges in the Rural Healthcare System ........................................................................................... 89 3.5.5 Government Efforts................................................................................................................................... 90 3.6 Social Protection .................................................................................................................................................... 92 3.6.1 Overview of India’s Social Protection System........................................................................................ 92 3.6.2 Social Assistance Programmes................................................................................................................. 95 3.7 The Way Forward................................................................................................................................................... 99 Chapter Four: Infrastructure............................................................................................................................................. 115 4.1 Rural Infrastructure: An Overview.................................................................................................................... 116 4.2 Roads..................................................................................................................................................................... 120 4.2.1 All-weather Rural Roads ........................................................................................................................ 121 4.2.2 Challenges................................................................................................................................................. 122 4.2.3 The Way Forward .................................................................................................................................... 124 4.3 Energy.................................................................................................................................................................... 126 4.3.1 Electricity.................................................................................................................................................. 126 4.3.2 Use of Biomass for Cooking ................................................................................................................... 130 4.3.3 The Way Forward .................................................................................................................................... 132 4.4 Water and Sanitation........................................................................................................................................... 133 4.4.1 Irrigation ................................................................................................................................................... 133 4.4.2 Drinking Water........................................................................................................................................ 135 4.4.3 Sanitation.................................................................................................................................................. 139 4.4.4 The Way Forward .................................................................................................................................... 143 4.5 Housing ................................................................................................................................................................ 145 4.5.1 Status of Rural Housing ......................................................................................................................... 145 4.5.2 Challenges in Building Permanent Housing......................................................................................... 145 4.5.3 Central and State Governments’ Contribution to Rural Housing ..................................................... 147 4.5.4 The Way Forward .................................................................................................................................... 148 4.6 Telecommunications............................................................................................................................................ 149 4.6.1 Status of Communications..................................................................................................................... 150 4.6.2 Review of Government Programmes and Policies............................................................................... 152 4.6.3 The Way Forward .................................................................................................................................... 153 4.7 Storage .................................................................................................................................................................. 153 4.7.1 Government Interventions...................................................................................................................... 154 4.7.2 Policy for Private Sector Participation not Conducive to Competition ............................................ 155 4.7.3 Warehouse (Development and Regulation) Act, 2007 ....................................................................... 156 4.7.4 The Way Forward .................................................................................................................................... 157 4.8 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................................ 157
Inspiring Stories.................................................................................................................between 170–171 Chapter Five: Sustainability.............................................................................................................................................. 174 5.1 Balancing Livelihoods and Natural Resource Conservation........................................................................... 174 5.2 Land....................................................................................................................................................................... 174 5.2.1 Declining Land Availability .................................................................................................................... 175 5.2.2 Land Degradation.................................................................................................................................... 175 5.2.3 Common Property Resources................................................................................................................ 177 5.2.4 Alleviation Efforts.................................................................................................................................... 179 5.3 Forests.................................................................................................................................................................... 181 5.3.1 Changes in Forest Cover......................................................................................................................... 181 5.3.2 The Disenfranchisement of Forest Dwellers........................................................................................ 182 5.3.3 Initiatives for Afforestation and Forest Protection .............................................................................. 184 5.3.4 Legislative Support for Community Management: PESA and FRA................................................ 185 5.4 Water..................................................................................................................................................................... 187 5.4.1 Water Resources: Imbalances in Availability and Use......................................................................... 187 5.4.2 Surface Water........................................................................................................................................... 188 5.4.3 Groundwater............................................................................................................................................ 189 5.4.4 Alleviation Efforts.................................................................................................................................... 190 5.5 Fishery ................................................................................................................................................................... 192 5.5.1 Marine Fishery ......................................................................................................................................... 193 5.5.2 Inland Fishery........................................................................................................................................... 194 5.6 Climate Change.................................................................................................................................................... 194 5.6.1 Impacts of Climate Change.................................................................................................................... 195 5.6.2 Government Action................................................................................................................................. 195 5.6.3 Rural Adaptation to Climate Change.................................................................................................... 196 5.6.4 Funding Climate Change Projects......................................................................................................... 197 5.7 The Way Forward................................................................................................................................................. 19 Chapter Six: Pris for Local Self-Governance and Rural Development................................................................... 209 6.1 The Need for Bottom-up Governance............................................................................................................... 210 6.2 The Constitution (73rd Amendment) Act, 1992............................................................................................. 211 6.3 Assessing Two Decades of PRIs Under the 73rd CAA................................................................................... 213 6.3.1 Implementing the Letter and Spirit of the Act..................................................................................... 213 6.3.2 Challenges in PRI Functioning .............................................................................................................. 220 6.3.3 Assessing PRI Performance in Flagship Programmes......................................................................... 224 6.4 Extending the 73rd CAA to Marginalised Populations.................................................................................. 227 6.4.1 The Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) (PESA) Act, 1996 ............................................... 227 6.4.2 Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006 (FRA)...................................................................................................................................... 228 6.5 Where Do We Stand Two Decades Later?....................................................................................................... 230 6.6 The Way Forward................................................................................................................................................. 231 PART 2 Chapter Seven: Performance of the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme......... 239 7.1 MGNREGA: A Vision for Employment Guarantee and Beyond................................................................. 240 7.2 The Letter and Spirit of the Act......................................................................................................................... 240 7.3 Bottom-up Implementation Framework .......................................................................................................... 242 7.4 Nationwide Coverage and Effectiveness............................................................................................................ 243 7.4.1 Registration and Issuance of Job Cards................................................................................................. 245 7.4.2 Demand, Actual Participation and Unmet Demand........................................................................... 246 7.4.3 Comparing Effectiveness Among Phase 1 and Phase 2 and 3 Districts............................................ 249 7.5 On-the-Ground Insights on Implementation................................................................................................... 250 7.5.1 Possible Reasons for Unmet Demand or Job Rationing ..................................................................... 251 7.5.2 Labour Standards and Worksite Facilities............................................................................................ 252 7.5.3 Wage Payments........................................................................................................................................ 253 7.5.4 Delays .................................................................................................................................................... 254 7.5.5 Livelihood Security.................................................................................................................................. 255 7.5.6 Leakages and Corruption........................................................................................................................ 256 7.6 Assessment of the Scheme’s Broader Objectives and Their Impact............................................................... 257 7.6.1 Planning .................................................................................................................................................... 257 7.6.2 Creation of Durable Assets..................................................................................................................... 258 7.6.3 Women’s Participation............................................................................................................................. 260 7.6.4 Impact of MGNREGS Wages and Labour Markets.......................................................................... 262 7.6.5 Migration .................................................................................................................................................. 264 7.6.6 Promoting Decentralised Development and Grassroots Democracy................................................ 264 7.6.7 Social Audits as Instruments of Transparency and Accountability................................................... 265 7.7 The Way Forward................................................................................................................................................. 267 7.7.1 Addressing the Immediate Implementation Challenges ..................................................................... 267 7.7.2 Addressing Unmet Demand................................................................................................................... 269