Foundations of behavioural research/
Fred Nichols Kerlinger and Howard Bing Lee.
- 4th ed.
- Victoria: Wadsworth, 2000.
- xxv, 890, 92 p. : ill. ; 24 cm.
Contents Part One The Language and Approach of Science Chapter 1 Science and the Scientific Approach Science and Common Sense 4 Four Methods of Knowing 6 Science and Its Functions 8 The Aims of Science, Scientific Explanation, and Theory 11 Scientific Research: A Definition 14 The Scientific Approach 15 Problem-Obstade-Idea 15 Hypothesis 15 Reasoning-Deduction 15 Obsei~cation-Test-Expei-hnent 17 Chapter Summary 19 Study Suggestions 20 Chapter 2 Problems and Hypotheses Problems 24 Criteria of Problems and Problem Statements 25 Hypotheses 26 The Importance of Problems and Hypotheses 27 Virtues of Problems and Hypotheses 28 Problems, Values, and Definitions 30 Generality and Specificity of Problems and Hj'potheses 31 The Multivariable Nature of Behavorial Research and Problems 32 Concluding Remarks: The Special Power of Hypotheses 33 Chapter Summary 34 Study Suggestions 3 5 Chapter 3 Constructs, Variables, and Definitions Concepts and Constructs 42 Variables 42 Constitutive and Operational Definitions of Constructs and Variables 43 Types of Variables 48 Independent and Dependent Variables 48 Active and Attribute Variables 53 Continuous and Categorical Variables 54 Constructs, Observables, and Latent Variables 56 Examples of Variations and Operational Definitions 57 Chapter Summary 61 Study Suggestions 62 Part Two Sets, Relations, and Variance Chapter 4 Sets Subsets b6 Set Openitions 67 The Universiil and Knipt)' Sets; Set Negation 6S Set Diagrams 69 Set Operations with .Vltne Than Iwo Sets 70 Partitions ami Ch-oss Partitions 71 Levels of Discourse 74 Chapter Suninvar)' 77 Study Suggestions 78 Chapter 5 Relations Relations as Sets of Ordered Pairs 82 Determining Relations in Research 85 Rules of Correspondence and Mapping 87 Some Ways to Study Relations 88 Graphs 88 Tables 88 Graphs and Correlation 92 Research Examples 95 iMultivariate Relations and Regression 98 Some Logic of Maltivariate Inquiry 98 Multiple Relations and Regression 100 Chapter Summary 101 Study Suggestions 101 Chapter 6 Variance and Covariance Calculation of Means and Variances 104 Kinds of Variance 106 Population and Saittple Variances 106 Systematic Variance 107 Between-Gronps (Experimental) Variance 107 Error Variance 110 An Example of Syste?natic and Error Variance 111 A Snbtractive Danonstration: Removing Benveen-Gronps Variance from Total I irriance 114 A Recap of Removing Between-Group \'ariance from Total Variance 117 Components ofViriance 1 18 Covariance 119 The Computer Addendum 12 2 Chapter Summaiy 128 fitudy Suggestions 129 Part Three Probability, Randomness, and Sampling Chapter 7 Probability Definition of Probabilit}' 134 Sample Space, Sample Points, and Events 135 Determining Probabilities witli Coins 138 An Experiment with Dice 139 Some Formal Theoiy 141 Compound Events and Their Probabilities 143 Independence, Adutual Exclusivcness, and Exhaustiveness 145 Conditional Probability' 150 Definition of Conditional Probability 150 An Academic Example 15 2 BayeP Theorem: Revising Probabilities 155 Example 156 Chapter Summaiy 158 Study Suggestions 159 Chapter 8 Sampling and Randomness Sampling, Random Sampling, and Representativeness 164 Randomness 167 An Example of Random Sampling 167 Randomization 169 A Senatorial Randomization Demonstration 171 Sample Size 175 Kinds of Samples 17 8 Sotne Books on Sampling 182 Chapter Summaiy 183 Study Suggestions 183 Computer Program Listing to Generate Table S.2 186 Part Four Analysis, Interpretation, Statistics, and Inference Chapter 9 Principles of Analysis and Interpretation Frequencies and Continuous 193 Rules of Categorization 194 Kjnds of Statistical /Vnalysis 198 Erequency Distributions 199 Graphs and Graphing 200 Measures of Central Tendency and Variability 202 Measures of Relations 203 Analysis of Differences 204 Analysis of Variance and Related Methods 205 Profile Analysis 207 Multivariate A nalysis 208 Indices 211 Social Indicators 213 The Interpretation of Research Data 214 Aclcff/ituy ofRfsamh Design, .1 Ictlwtlolo^', Mcdsiircmcut, uml Annlysis 215 mid Uuoncliisivc Results 216 Uiihypnthcsizi'd Rc/iifioiis mid l^iuiuth'ipiitcd hindiums 216 Prunf\ Pivhiihilit}', mid hiterprctiition 2 IS Chapter Summary 21 Study Suggestions 219 Chapter 10 The Analysis of Frequencies Data and V^triahle Terminology 223 Crosstabs: Definitions and Purpose 224 Simple Crosstabs and Rules for Crosstab Construction 225 Calculation of Percentages 227 Statistical Significance and the x" Ibst 229 Levels of Statistical Significance 232 Types of Crosstabs and lables 236 Onc-Diniciisioiuil Tubii's 2 36 Tivo-Dhncnsiuiuil T/ddcs 237 Tu'o-Dm/ciisiomil Tiddcs, ''True" Diehotomies, mid Contimioiis Mensures Three- mid k-Diviensioiui! Tables 240 Specification 241 Crosstabulations, Relations, and Ordered Pairs 243 The Odds Ratio 246 Miiltivariate Analysis of Frequency Data 247 Computer Addendum 248 Chapter Summary 253 Study Suggestions 254 Chapter I I Statistics; Purpose, Approach, Method The Basic Approach 257 Definition and Purpose of Statistics 258 Binomial Statistics 260 The \^iriance 262 The Law of Large Numbers 264 The Normal Probabilit>' Cuiwe and the Standard Deviation 265 Interpretation of Data Using the Normal Probabiliti' Cuiwe-Frequency Data 268 Interpretation of Data Using the Normal Prohabiliti' Curve-Continuous 1 )ata 269 Chapter Summary 272 Study Suggestions 273 Chapter 12 Testing Hypotheses and the Standard Error 275 Examples: Differences Between Means 276 Absolute and Relative Differences 277 Correlation Coefficients 278 Hypothesis Testing; Substantive and Null Hypotheses 279 The General Nature of a Standard Error 282 A Monte Carlo Demonstration 283 The Pi'ocedurc 283 Gcvcralizatiovs 285 The Central Limit Theorem 286 The Standard Error of the Differences betxveen Means 287 Statistical Inference 290 Testing Hypotheses and the Two Types of Errors 291 The Five Steps of Hypothesis Testing 295 Sample Size Determination 295 Example 297 Chapter Summary 299 Study Suggestions 300 Part Five Analysis of Variance Chapter 1 3 Analysis of Variance: Foundations Variance Breakdown: A Simple Example 308 The t-Ratio Approach 312 The Analysis of Variance Approach 313 An Example of a Statistically Significant Difference 315 Calculation of One-Way Analysis of Variance 317 A Research Example 321 Strength of Relations: Correlation and the Analysis of Variance 322 Broadening the Structure: Post Hoc Tests and Planned Comparisons 327 Post Hoc Tests 328 Planned Comparisons 328 Computer Addendum 331 t-Ratio or t-Test on SPSS 3 31 One-lVay ANOVA on SPSS 336 Addendum 340 Chapter Summary 340 Suidy Suggestions 341 Chapter 14 Factorial Analysis of Variance Two Research Examples 346 The Nature of Factorial Analysis of Variance 350 The Meaning of Interaction 352 A Simple Fictitious Example 352 Interaction: An Example 359 Kinds of Interaction 362 Notes of Caution 365 Interaction and Interpretation 367 Factorial Analysis of\tiriance with Three or xMore Variables 368 Advantages and Virtues of Factorial Design and Analysis of\ariance 371 Factorial Analysis of Variance: Control 372 Research Examples 374 Race, Sex, ami College Admissions 374 The Effect of Gemler, Type of Rape, ami Iiifonmitioii on Perception 375 Student Essays and Teacher Evalnation 376 Computer Addendum 377 Chapter Summart' 384 Study Suggestions 385 Chapter 1 5 Analysis of Variance: Correlated Groups Definition of the Problem 388 A Fictitious Example 389 An Explanatory Digirssion 390 Reexamination oj Table 15.2 Data 393 Further Considerations 394 Extracting Variances by Subtraction 397 Removal of Systetnatic Sources of Variance 398 Additional Correlated Analysis of Variance Designs 400 Research Examples 403 Ironic Effects of Trying to Relax Under Stress 403 Learning Sets of Isopods 403 Business: Bidding Behavior 405 Cotnputer Addendum 406 Chapter Summar)' 409 Study Suggestions 409 Chapter 16 Nonparametric Analysis of Variance and Related Statistics Parametric and Nonparametric Statistics 414 Assumption of Normality 415 Homogeneity of Variance 416 Continuity and Equal Intervals ofMeasures 416 Independence oj Observations 417 Nonparametric Analysis of Viiriance 418 One-Way Analysis of Variance: The Kruskal-Wallis Test 418 Two-Way Analysis of Variance: The Friedman Test 420 The Coefficient of Concordance, IV 42 3 Properties of Nonparametric Methods 424 Computer Addendum 425 The Kruskal-l'Vallis Test on SPSS 425 The Friedtnan Test on SPSS 430 Chapter Summary 431 Study Suggestions 431 I Part Six Designs of Research Chapter 1 7 Ethical Considerations in Conducting Behavioral Science Research Fiction and Realit)' 437 A 439 So7//e General GnideUucs 442 G/iidelincsfiwn the American Psy'choiogical Association 443 General Considerations 443 The Paiticipant at Minimal Risk 443 Fairness, Responsibility, and bifoimicd Consent 444 Deception 444 Debriefing 444 Freedom fro7n Coeirion 445 Protection of Paiticipants 445 Confidentiality' 445 Ethics of Annual Research 446 Chapter Sunimar\^ 447 Study Suggestions 448 Chapter 18 Research Design: Purpose and Principles Purposes of Research Design 450 An Exa7nple 451 A Stronger Design 452 Research Designs as Variance Control 455 A Controversial Exn7nple 456 Maximization of Experimental Variance 459 Control of Extraneous Variables 460 Minimization of Error Variance 462 Chapter Summar)' 463 Study Suggestions 464 Chapter 19 Inadequate Designs and Design Criteria Experimental and Nonexperimental Approaches 466 Symbolism and Definitions 467 Faulty Designs 468 Measnre/nent, Histoiy, Matin-ation 470 The Regression Eff ect 470 Criteria of Research Design 472 Answei' Reseaixh Questions? 472 Control of Extraneous Independent Variables 47 3 Generalizability 474 Internal and External I dlidity 475 Chapter Summar)- 478 Study Suggestions 479 Chapter 10 General Designs of Research Conceptual Foundations of Research Design 482 A Preliniinaiy Note: Fxperinienial Designs and Analysis of Wiriance 484 The Designs 485 The Notion of the Control Group ninl Extensions ofDesip;n 20.1 486 Matching versus Randomization 48'^ d latching hy Ecjiiating Participants 4'X) The Fre/jueniy Disirilmtion Matching Method 491 \latching by Holding I ariahles Constant 492 Matching by Incorporating the Nuisance I ariable Into the Research Design Participant as Oven (Control 493 Additional Design F.xtensions: Design 20.3 Using a Pretest 493 Difference Scores 495 Chapter Suniinar)- 499 Study Suggestions 500 Chapter 21 Research Design Applications: Randomized Groups and Correlated Groups Simple Randomized Subjects Design 502 A Research Example 502 DoUnski and Natvrat: Eear-then-Relief and Compliance 502 Factorial Designs 504 Factorial Designs with More than Two I driab/es 505 Research Examples of Factorial Designs 505 Sigall and Ostrove: . Ittractiveness and Crime 506 Quilici and Mayer: Examples. Schema and Learning 506 Evan/pie I 507 Example 2 507 E.xai//ple 3 507 Example 4 507 Hoyt: Teacher Knowledge ai/d Pupil Achievement 508 Evaluation of Randomized Subjects Designs 510 Correlated Groups 511 The General Pa/-adig/n 512 U//its 513 One Group Repeated Trials Design 513 Two g/'oups, Expern/zental Group-Control Group Designs 514 Research Examples of Ciorrelated Group Designs 515 Miller and DiCa/ ii: Learni//g of. luto//o///ic Functions 516 Tipper, EEsenbe/g, and IVeaver: Effects ofP/'actice on Selective Attention 518 Multigroup Correlated Groups Designs 519 Units Variance 519 Factorial Correlated Ciroups 520 Suedfeld and Rank: Revolutiontiry Leaders and Conceptual Con/plexity 521 PeiTine, Lisle, and Tucker: Offer of Help and Willingness to Seek Support 522 . aly.sis oFCovariance 523 Clark and Wafhcrg: Massive Rcinfoirc/ncnt and Reading Achievanent 524 Research Design and Analysis: Concluding Remarks 525 Computer Addendum 526 Chapter Summary 528 Study Suggestions 529 Part Seven Types of Research Chapter 11 Quasi-Experimental and N = 1 Designs of Research Compromise Designs a.k.a. Quasi Experimental Designs 536 Nonefjitivalent Control Group Design 536 No-Treannent Control Group Design 537 Research Examples 543 Nelson, Hall, and Walsh-Bowers: Noneqiiivalent Control Group Design 543 Chapman and McCauley: Quasi-Kxperiment 543 Time Designs 5-44 Multiple Time Series Design 546 Single Subject Experimental Designs 546 Some Advantages of Doing Single-Subject Studies 548 Some Disadvantages of Using Single-Subject Designs 549 Some Single-Subject Research Paradigms 550 The Stable Baseline: An Important Goal 550 Designs that Use the Withdrawal of Treatment 550 The A BA Design 5 5 0 Repeating Treatments (ABAB Designs) 551 A Research Example 552 Powell and Nelson: Example ofan A BAB Design 552 Using iV IIIIt ipie Baselines 553 Chapter Summary 554 Studv Suggestions 555 Chapter 23 Nonexperimental Research Definition 558 Basic Difference Between Experimental and Nonexperimental Research 558 Self-Selection and Nonexperimental Research 560 Large-Scale Nonexperimental Research 561 Determinants of School Achievement 5 62 Response Style Diff erences betiveen East Asian and North American Students Smaller Scale Nonexperimental Research 564 Cochran and Mays: Sex, Lies, and HIU 564 Elbert: Impaired Reading and Written Language in Attention Deficit Children 5 Testing Alternative Hypotheses 566 Evaluation of Nonexperimental Research 568 The Limitations of Nonexperimental Interpretation 568 The I alue of Nonexperimental Research 569 Conclusions 570 Chapter Summary 571 Study Suggestions 571 Chapter 24 Laboratory Experiments, Field Experiments, and Field Studies 575 A Laboratort' Experiment: Miller Studies of the Learning of Visceral Responses 576 A Field Experiment: Rind and Bordias Study on the Effects of a Seifer's "Thank You" and Personalization on Restaurant Tipping 577 .d Field Study: SetvcoiuFs Benuiugton College Study 578 Churueteristicx uud Criteriu of Luhomtory Experimeuts, Field Kxperiiinoits, uud Field Studies 579 Strengths uud Weaknesses of Luhorutoiy Experiments 579 Purposes of the Laboratory Experiment 581 The Field Experiment 581 Strengths and Weaknesses of Field Studies 5 82 Field Studies 585 Types of Field Studies 586 Strengths and Weaknesses of Field Studies 586 Qualitative Research 588 Addendum 593 The Holistic Experimental Paradigm 593 Chapter Summaiy 595 Study Suggestions 596 Chapter 25 Survey Research Types (jf Surveys 601 Interviews and Schedules 601 Other Types of Survey Research 603 The iVIethodology of Sun ey Research 604 Checking Survey Data 607 Three Studies 608 Verha and Nie: Political Participation in America 608 Doctcr and Prince: A Suit'ey of Male Cross-Dressers 609 Sue, Fujino, Hu, Takeuchi, and Zane: Community Health Services for Ethnic Minorities 610 Applications of Sur\ey Research to Education 611 Advantages and Disadvantages of Surx'ey Research 613 Meta-A na lysis 614 Chapter Summary 618 Study Suggestions 619 Part Eight Measurement 621 Chapter 26 Foundations of Measurement 623 Definition of Measurement 625 Measurement and "Reality" Isomorphism 627 Properties, Constructs, and Indicants of Objects 629 Levels of Measurement and Scaling 630 Classification and Emmieration 631 Nominal Measurement 632 Ordinal Measurement 632 Interval Measurement (Scales) 634 Ratio Measurement (Scales) 635 Comparisons of Scales: Practical Considerations and Statistics 635 Chapter Summar)' 638 Study Suggestions 639 Chapter 17 Reliability Definitions of Reliability 642 Theory of Reliability 645 Two Coynputational Examples 648 The Interpretation of the Reliabilit)' Coeficient 652 The Stanadard Error of the Mean and the Standard Error of Measurement The Improvement of Reliability 659 The Value of Reliabilit)' 662 Chapter Summar)' 663 Study Suggestions 664 Chapter 18 Validity Types of Validity 666 Content Validity and Content Validation 667 Criterion-Related Validity and Validation 668 Decision Aspects of Validity 669 Multiple Predictors and Criteria 670 Construct Validity and Construct Validation 670 Convergence and Dism?ninal>ility 671 A Hypothetical Example of Construct Validation 672 The Multitrait-Multimethod Matrix Method 674 Research Examples of Concuirent Validation 676 Research Exa?nples of Construct Validation 676 A Measure ofAnti-Seinitistn 677 A Measure of Personality 677 The Measurement of Democracy 67 8 Other Methods of Construct Validation 679 A Variance Definition of Validity: The Variance Relation of Reliability and Validity 680 Statistical Relation between Reliability and Validity 684 The Validity and Reliability of Psychological and Eduational Measurement Instruments 685 Chapter Summary 685 Study Suggestions 686 Part Nine Methods of Observation and Data Collection Chapter 29 Interviews and Interview Schedules Inter\'iews and Schedules as Tools of Science 693 The Ivterciev) 693 The Inten'iew Schedule 694 Khnh of Schedule Infoniiutioii and Items 694 Fixed-Alternative lte7ns 695 Example 695 Open-Ended Items 695 Example 696 Scale Items 696 Criteria of Question-Writing 697 The Value of Interviews and Inter\'iew Schedules 699 The Focus Group and Group Intei-viewing: Another Interviewing Method 700 Some Examples of Focus Group Research 701 Chapter Summary 702 Study Suggestions 703 Classical Works 703 Moi'e Recent Woi'ks 703 "Nonnar Studies 704 Chapter 30 Objective Tests and Scales Objectivity and Objective Methods of Obsen'ation 708 Tests and Scales: Definitions 709 Types of Objective Measures 7 09 Intelligence and Aptitude Tests 709 Achievement Tests 710 Personality Measures 711 Attitude Scales 112 Value Scales 715 Types of Objective Scales and Items 716 Examples 716 Agi-eenient-Disagreettient Items 717 Rajtk Order Items and Scales 118 Forced-Choice Items and Scales 719 Ipsative and Normative Measures 721 Choice and Construction of Objective Measures 723 Chapter Summary 724 Study Suggestions 725 Chapter 3 1 Observations of Behavior and Sociometry .. Problems in Observing Behavior 728 The Observer 728 Validity and Reliability 729 Categories 731 Units of Behavior 731 Cooperative/less 732 Observer Inference 732 Generality or Applicability 733 Sampling of Behavior 734 Rating Scales 736 Types of Rating Scales 737 Examples 737 M'^eaknesses of Rating Scales 738 Examples of Observation Systems 739 Time Sampling of Play Behavior of Plearing-lmpaired Children 739 Observation and Evaluation of College Teaching 740 Assessment of Behavioral Obsen'ation 741 Sociometry 742 Socio'/netiy and Sociometric Choice 742 Example 742 Exainple 743 Methods of Sociometric A nalysis 743 Sociometric Matrices 743 Sociogratns or Directed Graphs 745 Socioinetric Indices 746 Research Uses of Sociometiy 747 Prejudice in Schools 748 Socmnetiy and Stereotypes 748 Sociometiy and Social Status 748 Race, Belief, and Sociometric Choice 748 Chapter Summary 749 Study Suggestions 751 Part Ten Multivariate Approaches 753 Chapter 32 Multiple Regression Analysis; Foundations Three Research Examples 755 Simple Regression /Vnalysis 757 Multiple Linear Regression 761 An Example 761 The Multiple Correlation Coefficient 768 Tests of Statistical Significance 771 Significance Tests of Individual Regression Weights 773 Interpretation ofMultiple Regression Statistics 773 Statistical Significance of the Regression and R- 773 Relative Contributions to Y of the Xs 774 Other Analnic and Interpretative Problems 777 Research Examples 780 DDT and Bald Eagles 780 bijldtion Bias in Sclf-Asscswtcnt ILxiiniinations 781 M/i/tipk Rcgrcsm/i Analysis and Scientific Research 782 Chapter Summar\- 783 Study Suggestions 784 Chapter 33 Multiple Regression, Analysis of Variance, and Other Multivariate Methods 787 One-Way Analysis of \'ariance and Multiple Regression Analysis 788 Coding and Data Analysis 792 Factorial Analyis of Variance, Analysis of Covariance, and Related Analyses 795 Analysis of Covariance 796 Discriminant Analysis, Canonical Correlation, Multivariate Analysis of Variance, and Path Analysis 799 Disaiminant Analysis 799 Canonical Correlation 800 Research Examples 802 Multivariate Analysis of I hriance 802 Path Analysis 803 Ridge Regression, Logistic Regression, and Log-linear Analysis 805 Ridge Regression 805 The Problem uith Ordinaiy-Least-Sqnares (OLS) 806 Research Example 808 Logistic Regression 808 A Research Example 810 Mnltrway Contingency Tables and Log-Linear Analysis 811 Research Example 816 Multivariate Analysis and Behavioral Research 817 Chapter Summary 818 Study Suggestions 820 Chapter 34 Factor Analysis 825 Foundations 826 A Brief Histoiy 826 A Hypothetical Example 827 Factor Matrices and Factor Loadings 829 Some Factor Theoiy 831 Graphical Representation of Factors and Factor Loadings 833 Extraction and Rotation of Factors, Factor Scores, and Second-Order Factor Analysis 834 The Comminiality and Number of Factors Problems 83 5 The Principal Factor Method 836 Rotation and Simple Structure 839 Second-Order Factor Analysis 844 Factor Scores 845 Research Examples 846 The Comrcy Personality Scales 846 Thnrstone Factorial Study oj Intelligence 847 Fluid and Ciystallized Intelligence 847 Confinnatoiy Factor Analysis 849 Research Kvantple Using Confinnatoty Factor Analysis 851 Factor Analysis and Scientific Research 854 Chapter Summary 857 Study Suggestions 858 Chapter 35 Analysis of Covariance Structures Covariance Structures, Latent "V^iriables, and Testing Theory 864 Testing Alternative Factor Hypotheses: Duality Versus Bipolarit}' of Social Attitudes 868 Latent Variable Influences; The F"ull Eqs System 876 Setting Up the EQS Structure 878 Research Studies 880 Verba and Nie: Political Participation in America 881 Brecht, Dracup, Moser, and Riegel: Relationship of Marital Quality and Psychosocial Adjustment 882 Conclusions—and Reservations 884 Chapter Summary 887 Study Suggestions 888