The structure of learning/ R. Allen Gardner Beatrix T. Gardner

1 Introduction
Discovery Versus Understanding
Belief Versus Evidence
Operational Definition
Facial Vision
Dependent Variable
Independent Variable
Experimental Control
Introspection
Intervening Variable
Experiment Versus Correlation
Adaptive Versus Maladaptive
Ethological Experiments
Color Vision
Arbitrary and Obligatory
Obligatory Patterns
Observation and Experiment
Experimental Psychology
Ethology of the Skinner Box
Plan of This Book
2 Classical Conditioning
Typical Procedures
Salivation
Leg Withdrawal
Eyeblink
Knee Jerk
Basic Terms
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Orienting Response (OR)
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
Conditioned Response (CR)
Response Measures
Acquisition
Extinction
Resistance to Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Habituation
Sensitization
Relationship Between Conditioned
and Unconditioned Responses
Conditioned Response as a Fractional Response
Conditioned Response as a Prepatory Response
Generality
Experimental Subjects
Unconditioned Responses
Conditioned Stimuli
Arbitrary Stimuli
Ethology of Stimulus/Response Compatibility
Tinne and Sequence
Interstimulus Interval (ISI)
Length of the Interstimulus Interval
Conditioned Emotional Response
Social Conditioning
Imprinting
Conditioned Mobbing
Chemical Alarms
Emotional Words
Summary
3 Instrumental Conditioning
Typical Procedures
Reward
Escape
Avoidance
Punishment
Basic Terms
Unconditioned Stimulus
Response Measures
Response Variability
Acquisition
Extinction
Resistance to Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Generality
Maze Learning
Skinner Box
Schedules
Fixed Interval
Variable Interval
Fixed Ratio
Variable Ratio
Maintenance Versus Conditioning
Time Schedules
Discrimination
Successive Procedure
Simultaneous Procedure
Multiple Stimuli and Responses
Reinforcement and Inhibition Versus Differential Response
Summary
4 Mechanisms of Conditioning
Theory and Experiment
Stimuli and Responses
Four Basic Mechanisms
Common Sense
Parsimony
Implications
S-S Contiguity
Fractional Anticipatory Response
Length of the Jnterstimulus Interval
Direction of the Interstimulus Interval
S-S* Contingency
S-R-S* Contingency
Role of S*
Higher-Order Conditioning
Preconditioning
A Hybrid Paradigm
A Misnomer
S-R Contiguity
Sign Stimuli
Action Patterns
Temporal Patterns
Feedback Systems
Feed Forward Systems
Anticipatory Responses
Backward Conditioning
Rhythmic Patterns
Delay Conditioning
S-R Sequences
Contrast With Stimulus Substitution
Summary
5 Reinforcement Versus Expectancy
Response Contingent Reinforcement
S-R-S* Contingency
Goal Gradient
Learning the Shorter Path to a Goal
Order of Elimination of Blinds
Speed-of-Locomotion Gradient
Cognitive Expectancy
Unrewarded Trials
Free Exploration
Irrelevant Drive
Summary
6 Sequence and Anticipation
Latent Extinction
Segments of a T-Maze
Segments of a Goal Box
Drive Discrimination
Conditioned Rejection
7 Feed Forward Versus Feed Backward
Operational Definition
Defining Secondary Reward
Magazine Clicks
New Learning
Partial Reward
Interstimulus Interval
Summary
S-R Contiguity
S-R Chains in a Skinner Box
Preliminary Training
S-R-f
Discriminative Stimulus: S'' Versus S""
Feed Forward Versus Feed Backward
Conditioned Eating
Magazine Click as S^
Token Rewards for Chimpanzees
Money Feeds Forward
8 Continguity Versus Contingency
Shaping and Autoshaping
Superstition
Earning Versus Free Loading
Avoiding Food
Constraints and Contingency
Yoked Control
Experimental Design
Subject Selection
Readiness
Conclusion
Learning Without Hedonism
Bioassay
Inhibition and Competition
Feedback Versus Sign Stimuli
Autonomous Robots
Top-Down Robots
Bottom-Up Robots
Building From the Bottom Up
Bottom-Up Learning
Summary
9 Appetite, Aversion, and Conflict
Motive and Drive
Irritability
How Many Drives?
Evocative Stimuli
Selection
Summary
Aversion
defensive Aggression
Suppression and Induction
Rhythmic Patterns
Avoidance
Compatibility
Operant Avoidance
Two IVayj to Abolish Contingency
Earning Pain
Summary
Conflict
Homeostasis
Robots in Conflict
Fuzzy Control
Fuzzy Logic
Parallel Processing
Queuing
Control Problem
Fuzzy Solution
Biological and Industrial Priorities
Summary
10 Excitation, Inhibition, and Competition
Hull's Excitation and Inhibition
Two Kinds of Inhibition
Massed and Distributed Practice
Resistance To Extinction
Overtraining
Summary
Competing Responses
Considering More Than One Response
Two-Choice Situations
Competition and Contingency
Summary
11 Reward Versus Nonreward
Operant Procedure
Partial Reward During Acquisition
Extinction After Partial Reward
Amount of Practice
Discrete Trials
Generality
Discrimination
Frustration
What is Wrong With 100% Reward?
Anticipatory Goal Responses
Anticipatory Errors
Summary
12 Places, Paths, and Bearings
Place Learning Versus Response Learning
Spontaneous Alteration
Intramaze Stimuli Versus Extramaze Stimuli
Odor Trails
Compass Bearing
Navigation
Radial Arm Maze
Morris Water Maze
Caching Food
Summary
13 Transfer
Stimulus Generalization
Basic Phenomenon
Implications
Peak Shift
Transposition
Spence's Model
Psychophysics
Sign Stimuli
Dimensional Stimuli
Neural Networks
Habits, Hypotheses, and Strategies
Habits Versus Hypotheses
Overtraining and Reversal
Learning Sets
Problem Solving Versus Habit
Comparative Intelligence and Intelligent Compaiisons
Summary
14 Teaching Sign Language to Chimpanzees
Cross-Fostering
Sibling Species
Sign Language
Sign Language Only
Ethological Considerations
Chimpanzee Subjects
Teaching Methods
Contrast With Operant Conditioning
Failure of Extrinsic Incentives 301
Uses of the Signs 302
Phrases 311
Word-for-Sign Translation
Creativity
Development
Modular Approaches
Modular Semantics
Modular Conversation
A Robust Phenomenon
Replication
Loulis
15 Concepts and Communications
Communication and Information
Vocabulary Tests
Objectives
Teaching and Testing
Rewards
Items and Exemplars
Photography
Novelty
Target Signs
Test Results
Chance Expectancy
Productive Tests Versus Forced Choices
Signs of ASL
Concepts
Communication and Language
Duality of Patterning
Ethology and Operational Definition