Psychology/ Saundra k. Ciccarelli

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The Science of Psychology 2
WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? 4
The Field of Psychology 4
Psychology's Goals 4
PSYCHOLOGY THEN: THE HISTORY
OF PSYCHOLOGY 6
In the Beginning: Wundt, Introspection,
and the Laboratory 6
Jitchener and Structuralism in America 7
William James and Functionalism 8 *
Gestalt Psychology: The Whole Is Greater Than the Sum
of Its Parts 9
Sigmund Freud's Psychoanalysis 9
John B. Watson and Behaviorism 10
CLASSIC SrnrHFS PS VCHC)! Qi'l Y
Psychologist Mary Cover Jones and "Little Peter" 11
PSYCHOLOGY NOW: MODERN PERSPECTIVES 13
Psychodynamic Perspective 13
Behavioral Perspective 13
Humanistic Perspective 13
Biopsychological Perspective 14
Cognitive Perspective 14
Sociocultural Perspective 15
Evolutionary Perspective 15
TYPES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL PROFESSIONALS 16
Areas of Specialization 18
PSYCHOLOGY: THE SCIENCE 18
Why Psychologists Use the Scientific Method 18
Descriptive Methods 20
Finding Relationships 24
'A : ■ C ' i 'CLOG Y
Teresa Amah J the Effect of Extrinsic Reward
on Creativiti
ETHICS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 31
The Guidelines for Doing Research with People 32
CRITICAL THINKING 33
The Criteria for Critical Thinking 33 •
Pseudopsychologies: Why Do People Fall for Fakery? 34
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY TO EVERYDAY LIFE:
USING CRITICAL THINKING-DOES
ASTROLOGY WORK? 35
Chapter Summary 36
Key Terms 37
Test Yourself 38
>■ CONCEPT MAP 40
The Biological Perspective 42
AN OVERVIEW OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 44
NEURONS AND NERVES: BUILDING THE NETWORK 45
Structure of the Neuron—The Nervous System's Building
Block 45 ^
Generating the Message Within the Neuron—The Neural
Impulse 46
Sending the Message to Other Cells: The Synapse 49
Neurotransmitters: Messengers of the Network 51
Cleaning Up the Synapse: Reuptake and Enzymes 52
the CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM-THE "CENTRAI
PROCESSING UNIT" 53 ^tivj iKAL
The Brain 53
The Spinal Cord 53
PSYCHOLOGY IN THE NEWS
Adult Bone Marrow: New Hope for the Damaged Brain 55
THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM-NERVES
ON THE EDGE 56 ivcrsvta
The Somatic Nervous System 56
The Autonomic Nervous System 57
PEEKING INSIDE THE BRAIN 60
Clinical Studies 60
The EEG 60
CT Scans 62
MRI Scans 62
PET Scans 62
FROM THE BOTTOM UP THE STRUCTURES
OF THE BRAIN 62
The Brain Stem 63
Structures Under the Cortex 64
The Cortex 66
The Association Areas of the Cortex 69
CLASSIC STUDiFS Ui PSYCHOLOGY
Through the Looking Glass: Spatial Neglect 70
The Cerebral Hemispheres: Are You in Your
Right Mind? 70
THE CHEMICAL CONNECTION: THE ENDOCRINE
GLANDS 72
The Pituitary, Master of the Hormonal Universe 73
The Pineal Gland 73
The Thyroid Gland 73
» Pancreas 73
The Gonads 74
The Adrenal Glands 74
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY TO EVERYDAY LIFE:
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE
BRAINS 74
Chapter Summary 76
Key Terms 78
Test Yourself 78
► CONCEPT MAP 80
Sensation and Perception 82
THE ABCs OF SENSATION 84
What Is Sensation? 84
Sensory Thresholds 84
Habituation and Sensory Adaptation 86
the SCIENCE OF SEEING 87
Psychological Properties of Light: Catching the Waves 87
The Structure of the Eye 88
How the Eye Works 90
Color Vision 91 -
the hearing sense: CAN YOU HEAR ME NOW? Ss
Psychological Properties of Sound 95
The Structure 6f the Ear: Follow the Vibes, 96
Theories of Pitch 98
Types of Hearing Impairments 98
PSYCHOLOGY IN THE NEWS
New Surger, to Help Restore Heaiing 100
CHEMICAI SfNSES: IT TASTES GOOD, BUT IT SMELLS
""TueL'oa HOW we Taste the World 101
The Sense Of Scents: Olfaction 103
SOMESTHETIC SENSES: WHAT THE BODY KNOWS 104
Touch, Pressure, and Temperature 104
Pain—Gate-Control Theory 105
The Kinesthetic Sense 106
The Vestibular Sense 106
THE ABCs OF PERCEPTION 108
The Constancies: Size, Shape, and Brightness 108
The Gestalt Principles 108
Depth Perception 111
CLASSIC STUDIES IN PSYCHOLOGY
The Visual Cliff 111
Perceptual Illusions 114
Factors That Influence Perception 116
applying PSYCHOLOGY TO EVERYDAY LIFE: THINKING
CRITICALLY ABOUT ESP 117
Chapter Summary 119
Key Terms 120
Test Yourself 121
^ CONCEPT MAP 122
Consciousness: Sleep, Dreams,
Hypnosis, and Drugs 124
WHAT IS CONSCIOUSNESS? 126
Definition of Consciousness 126
Altered States of Consciousness 126
ALTERED STATES: SLEEP 127
The Necessity of Sleep 127
The Stages of Sleep 131
REM Sleep 133
REM Madness 134
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PSYCHOLOGY IN THE NEWS
Murderous Dreams 135
Sleep Disorders 137 |
DREAMS 139
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Freud's Interpretation: Dreams as Wish Fulfillment 139
The Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis 140
What Do People Dream About? I4i
ALTERED STATES: HYPNOSIS 142
Steps in Hypnotic Induction 142
Fact or Mirth: What Can Hypnosis Really Do? 143
Theories of Hypnosis 144
ALTERED STATES: PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS 145
Physical Dependence 145
Psychological Dependence 146
Stimulants: Up, Up, and Away 146
Down in the Valley: Depressants 150
Alcohol 151
Narcotics: I Feel Your Pain 152
Hallucinogens: Higher and Higher 154
Marijuana 155
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY TO EVERYDAY LIFE: ARE YOU
SLEEP DEPRIVED? 157
Causes of Sleep Deprivation 158
How Can You Tell if You Are Sleep Deprived 158
Chapter Summary 158
ftey Terms 160
Test Yourself 160
► CONCEPT MAP 162
Learning 164
DEFINITION OF LEARNING 166
IT MAKES YOUR MOUTH WATER: CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING 167
Pavlov and the Salivating Dogs 167
Elements of Classical Conditioning 167
Putting It All Together: Pavlov's Canine Classic,
or Ding, Dong, Bell 168
Conditioned Emotional Responses: Rats! 172
Other Conditioned Responses in Humans 173
Why Does Classical Conditioning Work? 174
WHAT'S IN IT FOR ME? OPERANT CONDITIONING 175
Frustrating Cats: Thorndike's Puzzle Box and the Law
of Effect 176
B. F. Skinner: The Behaviorist's Behaviorist 177
The Concept of Reinforcement 177
Other Operant Concepts 181
The Schedules of Reinforcement: Why the Gne-Armed
Bandit Is So Seductive 182
Punishment 186
Stimulus Control: Slow Down, It's the Cops 188
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Biological Constraints of Operant Conditioning 188
Applying Operant Conditioning: Behavior Modification 190
PSYCHOLOGY IN THE NEWS
Neurofeedback and the Treatmen >f ADD 191
COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORN J2
Tolman's Maze-Running Rats:
Latent Learning 193
Seligman's Depressed Dogs: Learned Helplessness 194
Kohler's Smart Chimp: Insight Learning 195
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING 196
Bandura and the Bobo Doll 196
The Four Elements of Observational Learning 197
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY TO EVERYDAY LIFE: CAN YOU
REALLY TOILET TRAIN YOUR CAT? 198
Ready? First Start by Training Yourself... 199
Chapter Summary 201
Key Terms 203
Test Yourself 203
CONCEPT MAP 206
Memory 208
MEMORY 210
Putting It In: Encoding 210
Keeping It In: Storage 211
Getting It Out: Retrieval 211
MODELS OF MEMORY 211
Levels-of-Processing Model 211
Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Model 212
THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING MODEL' THREE
STAGES OF MEMORY 212
Sensory Memory: Why Do People Do Double
Takes? 213
Short-Term (Working) Memory 215
Long-Term Memory 218
getting it OUT: RETRIEVAL OF LONG-TERM
memories 224
Retrieval Cues 224
Recall: Hmm . . . Let Me Think 226
Recognition: Hey, Don't I Know You from
Somewhere? 227
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Elizabeth Loftus and Eyewitnesses 228
Automatic Encoding: Flashbulb Memories 229
THE RECONSTRUCTIVE NATURE OF LONG-TERM
memory RETRIEVAL: HOW RELIABLE ARE
memories? 230
Constructive Processing of Memories 23(.
Memory Retrieval Problems 231
WHAT WERE WE TALKING ABOUT? FORGETTING 234
Ebbinghaus and the Forgetting Curve 234
Encoding Failure 235
Memory Trace Decay Theory 235
Intetference Theory, 235
MEMORY AND THE BRAIN: THE PHYSICAL ASPECTS
OF MEMORY 237
Neural Activity and Structure In Memory Formation 237
The Hippocampus and Memory 237
When Memory Falls: Organic Amnesia 238
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY TO EVERYDAY LIFE:
CURRENT RESEARCH IN ALZHEIMER'S
DISEASE 240
Chapter Summary 241
Key Terms 243
Test Yourself 243
► CONCEPT MAP 246
Development Across the Life
Span 248
ISSUES IN STUDYING HUMAN DEVELOPMENT 250
Nature Versus Nurture 251
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT 252
Chromosomes, Genes, and DNA 252
Dominant and Recessive Genes 253
Genetic and Chromosome Problems 254
From Conception to Birth 255
PSYCHOLOGY IN THE NEWS
Abby and Britty Hensel, Together for Life 256
INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD DEVELOPMENT 259
Physical Development 260
mm CURRENT ISSUES IN PSYCHOLOGYIW
The Facts and Myths About Immunizations 262
Cognitive Development 264
Psychosoclal Development 270
rm CLASSIC studies in PSYCHCiLOGY
Harlow and Contact Comfort 272
ADOLESCENCE 274 ' -
Physical Development 274 /
Cognitive Development 275 " ,
Psychosoclal Development 278 '
ADULTHOOD 279
Physical Development: Use It or Lose It 279
Cognitive Development 280
Psychosoclal Development 281
'' Theories of Aging 282
" .Stages of Death and Dying 283
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY TO EVERYDAY LIFE-
ADHD—NOT JUST FOR CHILDREN 284
Chapter Summary 286
Key Terms 287
Test Yourself 288
> CONCEPT MAP 290
Theories of Personality 442
THEORIES OF PERSONALITY 444
THE MAN AND THE COUCH: SIGMUND FREUD'
AND PSYCHOANALYSIS 445
Freud's Cultural Background 445
The Divisions of the Mind 445 .
The Divisions of the Personality 446
Stages of Personality Development 448
The Neo-Freudians 451
Current Thoughts on Freud and Psychoanalysis 454
THE BEHAVIORIST'S VIEW OF PERSONALITY 455
THE SOCIAL COGNITIVE VIEW OF PERSONALITY 456
Bandura's Reciprocal Determinism and Self-Efficacy 456
Current Thoughts on the Social Cognitive View 457
THE THIRD FORCE: HUMANISM AND PERSONALITY 457
Carl Rogers and Self-Concept 457
Current Thoughts on the Humanistic View of Personality 459
trait THEORIES: WHO ARE YOU? 459
Allport 459
Cattell and the 16PF 460
The Big Five: OCEAN, or the Five-Factor Model of Personality 461
Current Thoughts on the Trait Perspective 462
THE BIOLOGY OF PERSONALITY: BEHAVIORAL
GENETICS 462
Twin Studies 463
Adoption Studies 464
Current Findings 464
j;- CLASSIC STUDIES IN PSYCHOLOG Y
Geert Hofstede's Four Dimensions of Cultural Personality 455
ASSESSMENT OF PERSONALITY 466
Interviews 466
Projective Tests 467
Behavioral Assessments 469
Personality Inventories 469
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY TO EVERYDAY LIFE-
PERSONALITY TESTING ON THE INTERNET 471
Chapter Summary 472
Key Terms 474
Test Yourself 474
APPLYING PSYCHOLOGY TO EVERYDAY LIFE: SEASONAL
AFFECTIVE DISORDER (SAD) 552
Chapter Summary 553
Key Terms 555
Psychological Disorders ^20 Test Yourself 556
WHAT IS ABNORMALITY? 522
A Brief History of Psychological Disorders 522
What Is Abnormal? 523
The Final Definition of Abnormality 524
MODELS OF ABNORMALITY 524
The Biological Model: Medical Causes for Psychological
Disorders 524
The Psychological Models 525
'M P;;''CHOLOGYrAI
A Look at Abnormality in Various Cultures 526
DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL, VERSION IV,
TEXT REVISION (D5M-IV-TR) 527
Categories in the DSM-IV-TR 527
How Common Are Psychological Disorders? 529
ANXIETY DISORDERS: WHAT, ME WORRY? 530
Phobic Disorders: When Fears Get Out of Hand 530
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder 532
Panic Disorder 532
Generalized Anxiety Disorder 533
Causes of Anxiety Disorder 533
SOMATOFORM DISORDERS: SICKNESS AS^A STATE
OF MIND 535
Hypochondriasis 535
Somatization Disorder 535
Conversion Disorder 535
Causes of Somatoform Disorders 536
DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS: ALTERED CONSCIOUSNESS 536
Dissociative Amnesia: Who Am I? 537
Dissociative Fugue: Who Am I and How Did I Get Here? 537
Dissociative Identity Disorder: How Many Am I? 538
Causes of Dissociative Disorders 539
pw5 cURRflNT ISSUES IN RS'ff HOLOGYSfH
Was "Sybil" a True Multiple Personality? 540
MOOD DISORDERS: THE EFFECT OF AFFECT 541
Major Depression 542
Bipolar Disorders 542
Causes of Mood Disorders 543
SCHIZOPHRENIA: ALTERED REALITY 544
Symptoms 545
Categories of Schizophrenia 546
Causes of Schizophrenia 547
PERSONALITY DISORDERS: I'M OKAY, IT'S EVERYONE
ELSE WHO'S WEIRD 549