Comprehensive biotechnology Vol. 5/ principles and practices in industry agriculture medicine and the environment Moo-Young,Murray

5.01. Introduction

5.02. Functional Biomaterials

Glossary

5.02.1. Introduction

5.02.2. Current Use of Materials in Medicine

5.02.3. Functionality in Biomaterials

5.02.4. Conclusions

5.03. Biomaterials/Cryogels

Glossary

5.03.1. Introduction

5.03.2. Production of Cryogels in Semi-Frozen Systems

5.03.3. Cryogel Characterization

5.03.4. Cryogel Properties

5.03.5. Composite Cryogel Materials: Inherent Features and Applications

5.03.6. Cryogels in Biomedicine and Biotechnology

5.04. Biomaterials

Glossary

5.04.1. Introduction

5.04.2. Principle of Electrospinning

5.04.3. Electrospun Biomaterials: A Wide Range of Possibilities

5.04.4. Applications of Electrospun Biomaterials

5.04.5. Biocompatibility of Electrospun Biomaterials

5.04.6. Electrospun Biomaterials for 3D Tissue Regeneration

5.04.7. Current Challenges with Electrospun Biomaterials

5.04.8. Conclusion

5.05. Mesoscale Engineering of Collagen as a Functional Biomaterial

Glossary

Acknowledgment

5.05.1. Introduction

5.05.2. Two Application Streams for Engineered Tissues

5.05.3. Which Cell Support Materials to Use: Indirect and Direct TE?

5.05.4. Interstitial Cell Seeding: Cell-Matrix Embedding from the Start

5.05.5. Structure of Collagen – A Raw Material for Weavers?

5.05.6. Collagen Materials: Engineering the Basics

5.05.7. Building Blocks

5.05.8. Antigenicity

5.05.9. Collagen Purity (and Antigenicity)

5.05.10. Bottom-Up Collagen Engineering, Where Is the Bottom – Amino Acids or Tropocollagen?

5.05.11. Conclusion

5.06. Biomaterials

Glossary

5.06.1. Introduction

5.06.2. Temperature-Responsive Intelligent Surfaces for Chromatographic Separation

5.06.3. Temperature-Responsive Intelligent Surfaces for Cell Culture

5.07. Surface Modification to Improve Biocompatibility

Glossary

5.07.1. Introduction

5.07.2. Surface Events, Interactions, and Material Characteristics

5.07.3. Surface Modification

5.07.4. Future

5.07.5. Conclusions

5.08. Cryopreservation

Glossary

Acknowledgments

5.08.1. Introduction

5.08.2. Cryopreservation Methodology

5.08.3. Natural Tissue Cryopreservation

5.08.4. Engineered Tissue Cryopreservation

5.08.5. Future Challenges

5.09. The Artificial Organ

Glossary

Acknowledgments

5.09.1. Introduction

5.09.2. Materials of Encapsulation

5.09.3. Properties of the Microcapsules

5.09.4. Applications of Encapsulated Cells

5.09.5. Conclusions and Future Considerations

5.10. Isolation of Mesenchymal Stem Cells from Bone Marrow Aspirate

Glossary

5.10.1. The Cellular Composition of Bone Marrow

5.10.2. Why Isolate MSC Populations?

5.10.3. Separation Techniques

5.10.4. Conclusions

5.11. Nanoimprint Lithography and Its Application in Tissue Engineering and Biosensing

Glossary

5.11.1. Introduction

5.11.2. Biosensing Applications of NIL

5.11.3. Application of NIL in Tissue Engineering

5.11.4. Appendix: Additional References

5.12. Microfluidic Technology and Its Biological Applications

Glossary

5.12.1. Introduction

5.12.2. Microfluidic Technology

5.12.3. Basic Components in Microfluidic Systems

5.12.4. Biological Applications

5.12.5. Concluding Remarks

5.13. Multifunctional Biosensor Development and Manufacture

Glossary

5.13.1. Introduction

5.13.2. Biomolecule Immobilization

5.13.3. Transduction Technologies

5.13.4. Potentiometric Transduction

5.13.5. Optical Transduction

5.13.6. Nanowire Arrays

5.13.7. Micromechanical

5.13.8. Recent Developments

5.13.9. Conclusions

5.14. Treating Intracranial Aneurysms – A Review of Existing and Emerging Methods

Glossary

5.14.1. Introduction

5.14.2. Existing Options for Treating Intracranial Aneurysms

5.14.3. Cerebral Stents for Direct Treatment of Intracranial Aneurysms

5.14.4. Conclusions

5.15. RNA Interference (RNAi) Technology

Glossary

5.15.1. Introduction

5.15.2. The Discovery of the Phenomena

5.15.3. The Mechanism of RNAi

5.15.4. The Discovery of miRNA Pathway and Functions of miRNA

5.15.5. The Generation of siRNA

5.15.6. The Assessment of siRNA Specificity and Off-Target Effects

5.15.7. The Progress of siRNA Drug Development

5.15.8. Conclusion Remarks

5.16. Rheology and Its Applications in Biotechnology

Glossary

5.16.1. Introduction

5.16.2. Shear Rheometry

5.16.3. Material Rheology

5.16.4. Other Rheological Considerations

5.16.5. Applications

5.16.6. Conclusion

5.17. Biological Fluid Mechanics

Glossary

Acknowledgment

5.17.1. Introduction

5.17.2. Vascular Diseases

5.17.3. Computational Biofluid Techniques

5.17.4. Evolving to Multiscale, Multiphysics Models

5.17.5. Epilogue

5.18. Mechanobiology of Bone

Glossary

5.18.1. Introduction

5.18.2. Fundamental Cell Mechanics

5.18.3. A Case Study of Mechanobiology: Bone

5.18.4. Bone Anatomy

5.18.5. The Osteocyte

5.18.6. Basic Mechanics of Solid Materials

5.18.7. A Top-Down Approach to Bone Mechanosensation: What Happens to a Bone When You Take a Step?

5.18.8. The Effect of Fluid Flow on the Osteocyte

5.18.9. Nonmechanical Fluid Flow Effects on the Osteocyte

5.18.10. Intracellular Signaling Downstream of Mechanical Deformation

5.18.11. Osteocyte Mechanotransduction Guides Bone Remodeling

5.18.12. How BMUs Remodel Bone

5.18.13. Outcome of Bone Remodeling

5.18.14. Biomedical Applications

5.18.15. Summary

5.19. Biofluids | Microcirculation

Glossary

5.19.1. Introduction

5.19.2. Interaction between Blood Cells and the Capillary Wall

5.19.3. Transcapillary Exchange of Fluid and Solute

5.19.4. Transport of HA across the Synovial Lining of Joint Cavities

5.19.5. Summary and Future Perspective

5.20. Emerging Trends in Tissue Engineering

Glossary

Acknowledgment

5.20.1. Introduction

5.20.2. Tissue-Engineering Strategies

5.20.3. Microscale Technologies

5.20.4. Bioreactors

5.20.5. Translation into Clinical Applications

5.20.6. Cell Sourcing

5.20.7. Future Directions

5.20.8. Conclusion

5.21. Cartilage Tissue Engineering Using Embryonic Stem Cells

Glossary

5.21.1. Introduction and Scope

5.21.2. OA Pathophysiology

5.21.3. Current Therapeutic Strategies for Cartilage Defects

5.21.4. Cartilage Biology and Chondrogenesis

5.21.5. Stem Cells

5.21.6. Cartilage Tissue Engineering Using ESCs

5.21.7. Conclusions

5.22. Tissue Engineering

Glossary

Acknowledgments

5.22.1. Introduction and Overview

5.22.2. Clinical Need

5.22.3. Skeletal Stem Cells – Identification, Expansion, and Differentiation

5.22.4. Growth Factors

5.22.5. Matrices for Bone Regeneration

5.22.6. Interactive Role of Vasculature in Skeletal Regeneration

5.22.7. In vivo Models of Skeletal Regeneration

5.22.8. Clinical Translation

5.22.9. Summary

5.23. Tendon Tissue Engineering

Glossary

5.23.1. Introduction

5.23.2. Rotator Cuff Anatomy

5.23.3. Etiology of Tears

5.23.4. Reduced Tendon Healing

5.23.5. Tissue-Engineering Approach

5.23.6. What Are Stem Cells?

5.23.7. Stem Cell Identification

5.23.8. Potential Uses in Other Fields

5.23.9. Application to Tendon

5.23.10. Rotator Cuff Tendon Application

5.23.11. Which Procedure for Which Patients?

5.23.12. Determining Ideal Conditions

5.23.13. Potential Problems

5.23.14. Conclusions

5.23.15. Biological Agents

5.23.16. Scaffolds

5.23.17. Conclusions and the Future

5.24. Complexity in Modeling of Cartilage Tissue Engineering

Glossary

5.24.1. Introduction

5.24.2. Nutrients and Wastes

5.24.3. Cell Proliferation/Death

5.24.4. Matrix Deposition

5.24.5. Permeability/Diffusivity

5.24.6. Mechanical Property

5.24.7. Different Culture Systems

5.24.8. In Vivo Tissue Engineering

5.24.9. Discussion

5.25. Tissue Engineering of Fibrocartilaginous Tissues

Glossary

Acknowledgments

5.25.1. Introduction

5.25.2. Anatomy, Structure, and Function

5.25.3. Composition of the Extracellular Matrix and Its Organization

5.25.4. Pathologies and Current Treatments of the Fibrocartilages

5.25.5. Tissue Engineering

5.25.6. Conclusion

5.26. Tissue Engineering of Normal and Abnormal Bone Marrow

Glossary

5.26.1. Introduction

5.26.2. BM Structure

5.26.3. Modeling Artificial Niches

5.26.4. Perturbations in the BM Microenvironment

5.26.5. Conclusion

5.27. Evaluation of Silk as a Scaffold for Musculoskeletal Regeneration – the Path from the Laboratory to Clinical Trials

Glossary

Acknowledgments

5.27.1. Introduction

5.27.2. Common Types of Silk Scaffolds

5.27.3. A Review of Studies of Silk Scaffolds for Musculoskeletal Tissue Engineering

5.27.4. An Evaluation of Silk as a Scaffold for Musculoskeletal Repair – in the Context of Medical Device Regulations

5.27.5. Summary

5.28. Tissue-Engineering Technology for Tissue Repair and Regeneration

Glossary

Acknowledgments

5.28.1. Introduction

5.28.2. Basic Principles of Tissue engineering

5.28.3. Tissue Generation with Tissue-Engineering Technology

5.28.4. Application of Engineered Tissue for Tissue Repair

5.28.5. Clinical Application of Engineered Tissue Repair

5.28.6. Development of Engineered Tissue Products

5.28.7. Summary

5.29. Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells and Their Application to Personalized Therapy

Glossary

5.29.1. Introduction

5.29.2. hiPSCs Are Similar to, but Not Identical to, hESCs

5.29.3. Generating hiPSCs

5.29.4. Genetic Manipulation of hiPSCs

5.29.5. Generating Differentiated Cell Populations

5.29.6. Transplantation of hiPSC-Derived Cells

5.29.7. Patient Safety

5.29.8. Conclusion

5.30. Expansion of Hematopoietic Stem/Progenitor Cells

Glossary

5.30.1. Introduction

5.30.2. Sources of HSPCs

5.30.3. Requirement of Expansion Folds and Quality of HSPCs

5.30.4. Expansion of HSPCs under Common Static Culture Condition

5.30.5. Expansion of HSPCs under Dynamic Bioreactor Culture Conditions

5.30.6. Mimicking the In Vivo Microenvironment to Expand HSPCs

5.30.7. Brief Introduction of Clinical Application Tests with Expanded HSPCs

5.30.8. Summary

5.31. Umbilical Cord Blood Stem Cell Banking

Glossary

5.31.1. Introduction and Scope

5.31.2. Cord Blood Bank Models

5.31.3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Unrelated Cord Blood Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplants

5.31.4. The Provision of Altruistic Unrelated Cord Blood Banked Units from Public Cord Blood Banks

5.31.5. The Regulation of Cord Blood Banks

5.31.6. Improving the Quality of Cord Blood Units for Human Use

5.32. Stem Cell Therapy to Treat Heart Failure

Glossary

Acknowledgments

5.32.1. Introduction – Cell-Based Therapy for Cardiac Disease

5.32.2. Major Unmet and Compelling Clinical Need Drives Stem Cell Research and Trials in Heart Failure

5.32.3. Current Therapies in Heart Failure

5.32.4. Mechanisms of Cardiac Regeneration

5.32.5. Which Stem Cells Type Can Be Suitable for Cardiac Cell Therapy?

5.32.6. Cell Delivery

5.32.7. Clinical Trials with Bone Marrow-Derived Stem Cells

5.32.8. Conclusions and Future Challenges

5.33. Expansion of hMSCs and Their Application

Glossary

5.33.1. Introduction

5.33.2. Isolation of hMSCs

5.33.3. Expansion of hMSCs

5.33.4. Quality Control

5.33.5. Application of hMSCs

5.33.6. Summary

5.34. Cell Therapy for Parkinson’s Disease

Glossary

5.34.1. Introduction

5.34.2. ESCs or NSCs: Pros and Cons

5.34.3. Concluding Remarks

5.35. Stem Cell Therapy Facility Design

Glossary

5.35.1. Introduction

5.35.2. Stem Cell Transplantation Area

5.35.3. Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine Technology Research Center Design

5.35.4. Conclusion

5.36. Stem Cell Research and Molecular Markers in Medicine

Glossary

5.36.1. Introduction

5.36.2. Definition and Characteristics of MSCs

5.36.3. Sources of Other MSCs

5.36.4. Application of Human MSCs in Regenerative Medicine

5.36.5. Aging and Replicative Senescence Affect the Use of MSCs in Regenerative Therapy

5.36.6. Osteogenesis and Angiogenesis: Applications in Regenerative Therapy

5.37. Stem Cell Therapy – MRI for In Vivo Monitoring of Cell and Tissue Function

Glossary

Acknowledgments

5.37.1. Introduction

5.37.2. MRI for Tracking Stem Cell Fate

5.37.3. Applications of Stem Cell Tracking

5.37.4. MRI for Measuring Tissue Function after Stem Cell Therapy

5.37.5. Conclusions

5.38. Cryopreservation of Stem Cells

Glossary

Acknowledgment

5.38.1. Introduction

5.38.2. Stem Cells

5.38.3. Cryopreservation

5.38.4. Cryopreservation of Stem Cells

5.38.5. Concluding Remarks

5.39. Biopharmaceutical Development

Glossary

5.39.1. Introduction

5.39.2. Development of Vaccines

5.39.3. The Biopharmaceutical Development Pipeline

5.39.4. Regulatory Requirements

5.39.5. Selection of Biotherapeutic Protein Expression Systems

5.39.6. Development of Mammalian Cell Lines

5.39.7. Development of Mammalian Expression Vectors

5.39.8. Cell Culturing and Product Generation

5.39.9. Downstream Processing of Biopharmaceuticals

5.39.10. Viral Inactivation of Biologics

5.39.11. Process Analytical Technology

5.39.12. Formulation and Drug Delivery Systems

5.39.13. Biosimilars

5.39.14. Conclusions

5.40. Bioseparations

Glossary

5.40.1. Introduction

5.40.2. Tangential Flow MF

5.40.3. Depth Filtration

5.40.4. Sterile Filtration

5.40.5. Virus Filtration

5.40.6. Membrane Chromatography

5.40.7. Ultrafiltration

5.40.8. High-Performance Tangential Flow Filtration

5.41. Pharmaceutical Proteins – Structure, Stability, and Formulation

Glossary

5.41.1. Introduction

5.41.2. The Structure of Proteins

5.41.3. The Stability of Proteins

5.41.4. Formulation and Stabilization of Proteins in the Liquid State

5.41.5. Solid-State Protein Formulations

5.41.6. Conclusions

5.42. In Vitro Cancer Model for Drug Testing

Glossary

5.42.1. Introduction

5.42.2. In Vitro Cancer Model

5.42.3. 2D versus 3D Cancer Model

5.42.4. 3D Models

5.42.5. Summary

5.43. In Vitro Micro-Tissue and -Organ Models for Toxicity Testing

Glossary

5.43.1. Introduction

5.43.2. Development of In Vitro Tissue Models

5.43.3. Progress in Toxicity Testing Using In Vitro Micro-Tissue Models

5.43.4. Commercial Development of In Vitro Micro-Tissue Models for Toxicity Testing

5.43.5. Summary

5.44. Development of In Vitro Neural Models for Drug Discovery and Toxicity Screening

Glossary

Acknowledgments

5.44.1. Introduction

5.44.2. Cell Sources

5.44.3. Cell Culture Methods

5.44.4. In Vitro Cell-Based Assay

5.44.5. Discussion

5.45. In Vitro Chronic Neurotoxicity Assays

Glossary

5.45.1. Introduction

5.45.2. NT2.D1 Cells: Background

5.45.3. NT2.D1 and Toxicity Evaluation

5.45.4. NT2.D1s and Developmental Neurotoxicity

5.45.5. 3-D Culture: Available Models and Applications

5.45.6. Models of the BBB

5.45.7. The Future – In Vitro Chronic Models of Neurotoxicity

5.46. The Delivery of Drugs – Peptides and Proteins

Glossary

5.46.1. Introduction

5.46.2. The Delivery of Peptides and Proteins

5.46.3. Routes of Peptide and Protein Administration

5.46.4. Conclusions

5.47. Enzyme-Sensitive Biomaterials for Drug Delivery

Glossary

Acknowledgment

5.47.1. Introduction

5.47.2. Enzyme-Sensitive Polymer–Drug Conjugate

5.47.3. Enzyme-Sensitive Hydrogel

5.47.4. Enzyme-Sensitive Particulate Carriers

5.47.5. Conclusions

5.48. Drug Delivery Using Microneedles

Glossary

5.48.1. Introduction

5.48.2. The Skin Structure

5.48.3. Variation of Skin Thickness

5.48.4. Types of Microneedles

5.48.5. Methods of Drug Delivery Using Microneedles

5.48.6. Microneedle Fabrication

5.48.7. Materials of Fabrication

5.48.8. Method of Coating Solid Microneedles

5.48.9. Uses and Applications in Drug Delivery

5.48.10. Advantages and Limitations of Microneedles

5.48.11. Mathematical Models of Transdermal Delivery by Microneedles

5.48.12. Conclusion

5.49. Carbon Nanotube for Drug Delivery and Controlled Release

Glossary

5.49.1. Introduction

5.49.2. CNT Processing and Measurement

5.49.3. Drug Delivery

5.49.4. Toxicology

5.50. Drug Delivery Across the Blood–Brain Barrier

Glossary

5.50.1. Introduction

5.50.2. Transport Across the BBB

5.50.3. CNS Delivery Strategies

5.50.4. Conclusions

5.51. Organ Transplant

Glossary

5.51.1. Overview

5.51.2. Introduction to Transplantation

5.51.3. Focus on Antibody-Mediated Allograft Rejection

5.51.4. Small Animal Models in Studying AMR

5.51.5. Experimental Progress in Prevention of AMR Using Free Bone Grafting

5.51.6. Strategy to Prevent AMR in Presensitized Recipients through Terminal Complement Blockade

5.51.7. Summary and Conclusions

5.52. Artificial Organs

Glossary

5.52.1. Introduction

5.52.2. Kidney Anatomy and Physiology

5.52.3. Principles of Modern Dialysis

5.52.4. Improved Dialysis Therapies

5.52.5. Emerging Technologies in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine

5.52.6. Conclusions and Future Prospects

5.53. Artificial Organs | Pancreas

Glossary

Acknowledgments

5.53.1. Introduction

5.53.2. Artificial Pancreas

5.53.3. Cell- and Tissue-Based Therapies for IDD

5.53.4. Concluding Remarks

5.54. Hemoglobin-Based Blood Substitutes – Preparation Technologies and Challenges

Glossary

5.54.1. Introduction

5.54.2. Brief History of Blood Substitute Research

5.54.3. Preparation Technologies for Blood Substitutes

5.54.4. The Application Prospect of Blood Substitutes

5.54.5. Problems with Current Blood Substitutes

5.54.6. Future Prospect

5.55. Blood Detoxication

Glossary

5.55.1. Introduction

5.55.2. Membrane Techniques

5.55.3. Adsorption Techniques

5.55.4. Combined Use of Both Membrane and Adsorption Techniques

5.55.5. Perspectives

5.56. Novel and Current Techniques to Produce Endotoxin-Free Dialysate in Dialysis Centers

Glossary

5.56.1. Introduction

5.56.2. Ceramic Membranes

5.56.3. Ceramic Membranes for Endotoxin Removal

5.56.4. Conclusions and Future Perspectives