Ecology/ concepts and applications Jr.Manuel C. Molles,

Preface --
1: Introduction to ecology: historical foundations and developing frontiers --
Overview of ecology --
Ecology of forest birds: old tools and new --
Forest canopy research: a physical and scientific frontier --
Climatic and ecological change: past and future --
Investigating the Evidence 1: Scientific method-questions and hypotheses --
Scope of ecology --
Section 1: Natural History And Evolution --
2: Life on land --
Terrestrial biomes --
Concepts --
2-1: Large-scale patterns of climatic variation --
Temperature, atmospheric circulation, and precipitation --
Climate diagrams --
Concept 2-1 Review --
2-2: Soil: the foundation of terrestrial biomes --
Investigating the Evidence 2: Determining the sample mean --
Concept 2-2 Review --
2-3: Natural history and geography of biomes --
Tropical rain forest --
Tropical dry forest --
Tropical savanna --
Desert --
Mediterranean woodland and shrubland --
Temperate grassland --
Temperate forest --
Boreal forest --
Tundra --
Mountains: islands in the sky --
Concept 2-3 review --
Applications: Climatic variation and the Palmer Drought Severity Index --
3: Life in water --
Concepts --
3-1: Hydrologic cycle --
Concept 3-1 Review --
3-2: Natural history of aquatic environments --
Oceans --
Life in shallow marine waters: kelp forests and coral gardens --
Investigating the Evidence 3: Determining the sample median --
Marine shores: life between high and low tides --
Estuaries, salt marshes, and mangrove forests --
Rivers and streams: life blood and pulse of the land --
Lakes: small seas --
Concept 3-2 Review --
Applications: Biological integrity-assessing the health of aquatic systems --
Number of species and species composition --
Trophic composition --
Fish abundance and condition --
Test --
4: Population genetics and natural selection --
Concepts --
4-1: Variation within populations --
Variation in a widely distributed plant --
Variation in alpine fish populations --
Concept 4-1 Review --
4-2: Hardy-Weinberg --
Calculating gene frequencies --
Concept 4-2 Review --
4-3: Process of natural selection --
Stabilizing selection --
Directional selection --
Disruptive selection --
Concept 4-3 Review --
4-4: Evolution by natural selection --
Evolution by natural selection and genetic variation --
Investigating the Evidence 4: Variation in data --
Adaptive change in colonizing lizards --
Rapid adaption by soapberry bugs to new host plants --
Concept 4-4 Review --
4-5: Change due to chance --
Evidence of genetic drift in Chihuahua spruce --
Genetic variation in island populations --
Genetic diversity and butterfly extinctions --
Concept 4-5 Review --
Applications: Evolution and agriculture --
Evolution of herbicide resistance in weeds. Section 2: Adaptations To The Environment --
5: Temperature relations --
Concepts --
5-1: Microclimates --
Altitude --
Aspect --
Vegetation --
Color of the ground --
Presence of boulders and burrows --
Aquatic temperatures --
Concept 5-1 Review --
5-2: Temperature and performance of organisms --
Principle of allocation --
Temperature and animal performance --
Investigating the Evidence 5: Laboratory experiments --
Extreme temperatures and photosynthesis --
Temperature and microbial activity --
Concept 5-2 Review --
5-3: Regulating body temperature --
Balancing heat gain against heat loss --
Temperature regulation by plants --
Temperature regulation by ectothermic animals --
Temperature regulation by endothermic animals --
Temperature regulation by thermogenic plants --
Concept 5-3 Review --
5-4: Surviving extreme temperatures --
Inactivity --
Reducing metabolic rate --
Hibernation by a tropical species --
Concept 5-4 Review --
Applications: Climatic warming and the local extinction of a land snail --
6: Water relations --
Concepts --
6-1: Water availability --
Water content of air --
Water movement in aquatic environments --
Water movement between soils and plants --
Concept 6-1 Review --
6-2: Water regulation on land --
Water acquisition by animals --
Water acquisition by plants --
Water conservation by plants and animals --
Investigating the Evidence 6: Sample size --
Dissimilar organisms with similar approaches to desert life --
Two arthropods with opposite approaches to desert life --
Concept 6-2 Review --
6-3: Water and salt balance in aquatic environments --
Marine fish and invertebrates --
Freshwater fish and invertebrates --
Concept 6-3 Review --
Applications: Using stable isotopes to study water uptake by plants --
Stable isotope analysis --
Using stable isotopes to identify plant water sources --
7: Energy and nutrient relations --
Concepts --
7-1: Photosynthetic autotrophs --
Solar-powered biosphere --
Concept 7-1 Review --
7-2: Chemosynthetic autotrophs --
Concept 7-2 Review --
7-3: Heterotrophs --
Chemical compostition and nutrient requirements --
Concept 7-3 Review --
7-4: Energy limitation --
Photon flux and photosynthetic response curves --
Food density and animal functional response --
Concept 7-4 Review --
7-5: Optimal foraging theory --
Testing optimal foraging theory --
Optimal foraging by plants --
Investigating the Evidence 7: Scatter plots and the relationship between variables --
Concept 7-5 Review --
Applications: Bioremediation-using the trophic diversity of bacteria to solve environmental problems --
Leaking underground storage tanks --
Cyanide and nitrates in mine spoils --
8: Social relations --
Concepts --
8-1: Mate choice --
Mate choice and sexual selection in guppies --
Mate choice among scorpionflies --
Nonrandom mating among wild radish --
Concept 8-1 Review --
8-2: Sociality --
Cooperative breeders --
Investigating the Evidence 8: Estimating heritability using regression analysis --
Concept 8-2 Review --
8-3: Eusociality --
Eusocial species --
Evolution of eusociality --
Concept 8-3 Review --
Applications: Behavioral ecology and conservation --
Tinbergen's framework --
Environmental enrichment and development of behavior. Section 3: Population Ecology --
9: Population distribution and abundance --
Concepts --
9-1: Distribution limits --
Kangaroo distributions and climate --
Tiger beetle of cold climates --
Distributions of plants along a moisture-temperature gradient --
Distributions of barnacles along an intertidal exposure gradient --
Concept 9-1 Review --
9-2: Patterns on small scales --
Scale, distributions, and mechanisms --
Distributions of tropical bee colonies --
Distributions of desert shrubs --
Concept 9-2 Review --
9-3: Patterns on large scales --
Bird populations across North America --
Investigating the Evidence 9: Clumped, random, and regular distributions --
Plant distributions along moisture gradients --
Concept 9-3 Review --
9-4: Organism size and population density --
Animal size and population density --
Plant size and population density --
Concept 9-4 Review --
Applications: Rarity and vulnerability to extinction seven forms of rarity and one of abundance --
10: Population dynamics --
Concepts --
10-1: Dispersal --
Dispersal of expanding populations --
Range changes in response to climate change --
Dispersal in response to changing food supply --
Dispersal in rivers and streams --
Concept 10-1 Review --
10-2: Metapopulations --
Metapopulation of an Alpine butterfly --
Dispersal within a metapopulation of lesser kestrels --
Concept 10-2 Review --
10-3: Patterns of survival --
Estimating patterns of survival --
High survival among the young --
Constant rates of survival --
High mortality among the young --
Three types of survivorship curves --
Concept 10-3 Review --
10-4: Age distribution --
Contrasting tree populations --
Dynamic population in a variable climate --
Concept 10-4 Review --
10-5: Rates of population change --
Estimating rates for an annual plant --
Estimating rates when generations overlap --
Concept 10-5 Review --
Investigating the Evidence 10: Hypotheses and statistical significance --
Applications: Using population dynamics to assess the impact of pollutants --
11: Population growth --
Concepts --
11-1: Geometric and exponential population growth --
Geometric growth --
Exponential growth --
Exponential growth in nature --
Concept 11-1 Review --
11-2: Logistic population growth --
Concept 11-2 Review --
11-3: Limits to population growth --
Environment and birth and death among Galapagos finches --
Investigating the Evidence 11: Frequency of alternative phenotypes in a population --
Concept 11-3 Review --
Applications: Human population --
Distribution and abundance --
Population dynamics --
Population growth --
12: Life histories --
Concepts --
12-1: Offspring number versus size --
Egg size and number in fish --
Seed size and number in plants --
Seed size and seedling performance --
Concept 12-1 Review --
12-2: Adult survival and reproductive allocation --
Life history variation among species --
Life history variation within species --
Concept 12-2 Review --
12-3: Life history classification --
r and K selection --
Investing the Evidence 12: Statistical test for distribution pattern --
Plant life histories --
Opportunistic, equilibrium, and periodic life histories --
Reproductive effort, offspring size, and benefit-cost ratios --
Concept 12-3 Review --
Applications: Using life history information to restore Riparian forests. Section 4: Interactions --
13: Competition --
Concepts --
13-1: Intraspecific competition --
Intraspecific competition among plants --
Intraspecific competition among planthoppers --
Interference competition among terrestrial isopods --
Concept 13-1 Review --
13-2: Competitive exclusion and niches --
Feeding niches of Galapagos finches --
Habitat niche of a salt marsh grass --
Concept 13-2 Review --
13-3: Mathematical and laboratory models --
Modeling interspecific competition --
Laboratory models of competition --
Concept 13-3 Review --
13-4: Competition and niches --
Niches and competition among plants --
Niche overlap and competition between barnacles --
Competition and the habitat of a salt marsh grass --
Competition and the niches of small rodents --
Character displacement --
Investigating the Evidence 13: Field experiments --
Evidence for competition in nature --
Concept 13-4 Review --
Applications: Competition between native and invasive species --
14: Exploitative interactions: predation, herbivory, parasitism, and disease --
Concepts --
14-1: Complex interactions --
Parasites and pathogens that manipulate host behavior --
Entangling of exploitation with competition --
Concept 14-1 Review --
14-2: Exploitation and abundance --
Herbivorous stream insect and its algal food --
Introduced cactus and a herbivorous moth --
Pathogenic parasite, a predator, and its prey --
Concept 14-2 Review --
14-3: Dynamics --
Cycles of abundance in snowshoe hares and their predators --
Investigating the Evidence 14: Standard error of the mean --
Experimental test of food and predation impacts --
Population cycles in mathematical and laboratory models --
Concept 14-3 Review --
14-4: Refuges --
Refuges and host persistence in laboratory and mathematical models --
Exploited organisms and their wide variety of "refuges" --
Concept 14-4 Review --
Applications: Using predators to control a parasite --
15: Mutualism --
Concepts --
15-1: Plant mutualisms --
Plant performance and mycorrhizal fungi --
Ants and swollen thorn acacias --
Temperate plant protection mutualism --
Concept 15-1 Review --
15-2: Coral mutualisms --
Zooxanthellae and corals --
Coral protection mutualism --
Concept 15-2 Review --
15-3: Evolution of mutualism --
Investigating the Evidence 15: Confidence intervals --
Facultative ant-plant protection mutualisms --
Concept 15-3 Review --
Applications: Mutualism and humans --
Guiding behavior --
Section 5: Communities And Ecosystems --
16: Species abundance and diversity --
Concepts --
16-1: Species abundance --
Lognormal distribution --
Concept 16-1 Review --
16-2: Species diversity --
Quantitative index of species diversity --
Rank-abundance curves --
Concept 16-2 Review --
Investigating the Evidence 16: Estimating the number of species in communities --
16-3: Environmental complexity --
Forest complexity and bird species diversity --
Niches, heterogeneity, and the diversity of algae and plants --
Niches of algae and terrestrial plants --
Complexity in plant environments --
Soil and topographic heterogeneity and the diversity of tropical forest trees --
Algal and plant species diversity and increased nutrient availability --
Nitrogen enrichment and ectomycorrhizal fungus diversity --
Concept 16-3 Review --
16-4: Disturbance and diversity --
Nature of equilibrium --
Nature and sources of disturbance --
Intermediate disturbance hypothesis --
Disturbance and diversity in the intertidal zone --
Disturbance and diversity in temperate grasslands --
Concept 16-4 Review --
Applications: Disturbance by humans --
Disturbance by humans and the diversity of chalk grasslands --
17: Species interactions and community structure --
Concepts --
17-1: Community webs --
Detailed food webs reveal great complexity --
Strong interactions and food web structure --
Concept 17-1 Review --
17-2: Indirect interactions --
Indirect commensalism --
Apparent competition --
Concept 17-2 Review --
17-3: Keystone species --
Food web structure and species diversity --
Experimental removal of sea stars --
Snail effects on algal diversity --
Fish as keystone species in river food webs --
Investigating the Evidence 17: Using confidence intervals to compare populations --
Concept 17-3 Review --
17-4: Mutualistic keystones --
Cleaner fish as a keystone species --
Seed dispersal mutualists as keystone species --
Concept 17-4 Review --
Applications: Human modification of food webs --
Empty forest: hunters and tropical rain forest animal communities --
Ants and agriculture: keystone predators for pest control --
18: Primary production and energy flow --
Concepts --
18-1: Patterns of terrestrial primary production --
Actual evaportranspiration and terrestrial primary production --
Soil fertility and terrestrial primary production --
Concept 18-1 Review --
18-2: Patterns of aquatic primary production --
Patterns and models --
Whole lake experiments on primary production --
Global patterns of marine primary production --
Concept 18-2 Review --
18-3: Consumer influences --
Piscivores, planktivores, and lake primary production --
Grazing by large mammals and primary production on the Serengeti --
Investigating the Evidence 18: Comparing two populations with the t-Test --
Concept 18-3 Review --
18-4: Trophic levels --
Trophic dynamic view of ecosystems --
Energy flow in a temperate deciduous forest --
Concept 18-4 Review --
Applications: Using stable isotope analysis to trace energy flow through ecosystems --
Trophic levels of tropical river fish --
Using stable isotopes to identify sources of energy in a salt marsh --
Food habits of prehistoric human populations --
19: Nutrient cycling and retention --
Concepts --
19-1: Nutrient cycles --
Phosphorus cycle --
Nitrogen cycle --
Carbon cycle --
Concept 19-1 Review --
19-2: Rates of decomposition --
Decomposition in two Mediterranean woodland ecosystems --
Decomposition in two temperate forest ecosystems --
Decomposition in aquatic ecosystems --
Investigating the Evidence 19: Assumptions for statistical tests --
Concept 19-2 Review --
19-3: Organisms and nutrients --
Nutrient cycling in streams --
Animals and nutrient cycling in terrestrial ecosystems --
Plants and the nutrient dynamics of ecosystems --
Concept 19-3 Review --
19-4: Disturbance and nutrients --
Disturbance and nutrient loss from the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest --
Flooding and nutrient export by streams --
Concept 19-4 Review --
Applications: Altering aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. 20: Succession and stability --
Concepts --
20-1: Community changes during succession --
Primary succession at Glacier Bay --
Secondary succession in temperate forests --
Succession in rocky intertidal communities --
Succession in stream communities --
Concept 20-1 Review --
20-2: Ecosystem changes during succession --
Ecosystem changes at Glacier Bay --
Four million years of ecosystem change --
Recovery of nutrient retention following disturbance --
Succession and stream ecosystem properties --
Concept 20-2 Review --
20-3: Mechanisms of succession --
Successional mechanisms in the rocky intertidal zone --
Successional mechanisms in forests --
Concept 20-3 Review --
20-4: Community and ecosystem stability --
Some definitions --
Lessons from the park grass experiment --
Replicate disturbances and desert stream stability --
Investigating the Evidence 20: Variation around the median --
Concept 20-4 Review --
Applications: Using repeat photography to detect long-term change --
Section 6: Large-Scale Ecology --
21: Landscape ecology --
Concepts --
21-1: Landscape structure --
Structure of six landscapes in Ohio --
Fractal geometry of landscapes --
Concept 21-1 Review --
21-2: Landscape processes --
Landscape structure and the dispersal of mammals --
Habitat patch size and isolation and the density of butterfly populations --
Habitat corridors and movement of organisms --
Landscape position and lake chemistry --
Investigating the Evidence 21: Comparison of two samples using a rank sum test --
Concept 21-2 Review --
21-3: Origins of landscape structure and change --
Geological processes, climate, and landscape structure --
Organisms and landscape structure --
Fire and the structure of a Mediterranean landscape --
Concept 21-3 Review --
Applications: Restoring a riverine landscape --
Riverine restoration: The Kissimmee River --
22: Geographic ecology --
Concepts --
22-1: Area, isolation, and species richness --
Sampling area and number of species --
Island area and species richness --
Island isolation and species richness --
Concept 22-1 Review --
22-2: Equilibrium model of island biogeography --
Species turnover on islands --
Experimental island biogeography --
Colonization of new islands by plants --
Manipulating island area --
Island biogeography update --
Concept 22-2 Review --
22-3: Latitudinal gradients in species richness --
Area and latitudinal gradients in species richness --
Continental area and species richness --
Concept 22-3 Review --
22-4: Historical and regional influences --
Exceptional patterns of diversity --
Investigating the Evidence 22: Sample size revisited --
Historical and regional explanations --
Concept 22-4 Review --
Applications: Global positioning systems, remote sensing, and geographic information systems --
Global positioning systems --
Remote sensing --
Geographic information systems --
23: Global ecology --
Atmospheric envelope and the greenhouse earth --
Concepts --
23-1: Global system --
Historical thread --
El Nino and La Nina --
El Nino and marine populations --
El Nino and the Great Salt Lake --
El Nino and terrestrial populations in Australia --
Concept 23-1 Review --
23-2: Human activity and the global nitrogen cycle --
Concept 23-2 Review --
23-3: Changes in land cover --
Tropical deforestation --
Investigating the Evidence 23: Discovering what's been discovered --
Concept 23-3 Review --
23-4: Human influence on atmospheric composition --
Depletion and recovery of the ozone layer --
Future --
Concept 23-4 Review --
Applications: Cooperative research networks for global ecology --
Appendix: Statistical Tables --
Glossary --
References --
Credits --
Index.