Structured computer organization Andrew S. Tanenbaum
Material type:
TextPublication details: New Delhi : PHI , 2011Edition: 5th edDescription: xx,777 p. illISBN: 9788120329133 (pb)Subject(s): Computer OrganizationDDC classification: 004.22 | Item type | Current library | Call number | Status | Date due | Barcode | Item holds |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
General Books
|
Central Library, Sikkim University General Book Section | 004.22 TAN/S (Browse shelf(Opens below)) | Available | P18880 |
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 STRUCTURED COMPUTER ORGANIZATION 2
1.1.1 Languages, Levels, and Virtual Machines 2
1.1.2 Contemporary Multilevel Machines 5
1.1.3 Evolution of Multilevel Machines 8
1.2 MILESTONES IN COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE 13
1.2.1 The Zeroth Generation—^Mechanical Computers (1642-1945) 14
1.2.2 The First Generation—Vacuum Tubes (1945-1955) 16
1.2.3 The Second Generation—^Transistors (1955-1965) 19
1.2.4 The Third Generation—Integrated Circuits (1965-1980) 22
1.2.5 The Fourth Generation—^Very Large Scale Integration (1980-?) 23
1.2.6 The Fifth Generation—^Invisible Computers 26
1.3 THE COMPUTER ZOO 27
1.3.1 Technological and Economic Forces 27
1.3.2 The Computer Spectrum 29
1.3.3 Disposable Computers 29
1.3.4 Microcontrollers 31
1.3.5 Game Computers 33
1.3.6 Personal Computers 34
vu
1.3.7 Servers 34
1.3.8 Collections of Workstations 34
1.3.9 Mainframes 36
1.4 EXAMPLE COMPUTER FAMILIES 37
1.4.1 Introduction to the Pentium 4 37
1.4.2 Introduction to the UltraSPARC III 42
1.4.3 Introduction to the 8051 44
1.5 METRIC UNITS 46
1.6 OUTLINE OF THIS BOOK 47
2 COMPUTER SYSTEMS ORGANIZATION
2.1 PROCESSORS 51
2.1.1 CPU Organization 52
2.1.2 Instruction Execution 54
2.1.3 RISC versus CISC 58
2.1.4 Design Principles for Modem Computers 59
2.1.5 Instruction-Level Parallelism 61
2.1.6 Processor-Level Parallelism 65
2.2 PRIMARY MEMORY 69
2.2.1 Bits 69
2.2.2 Memory Addresses 70
2.2.3 Byte Ordering 71
2.2.4 Error-Correcting Codes 73
2.2.5 Cache Memory 77
2.2.6 Memory Packaging and Types 80
2.3 SECONDARY MEMORY 81
2.3.1 Memory Hierarchies 81
2.3.2 Magnetic Disks 82
2.3.3 Floppy Disks 86
2.3.4 IDE Disks 86
2.3.5 SCSI Disks 88
2.3.6 RAID 89
2.3.7 CD-ROMs 93
2.3.8 CD-Recordables 97
2.3.9 CD-Rewritables 99
2.3.10 DVD 99
2.3.11 Blu-Ray 102
2.4 INPUT/OUTPUT 102
2.4.1 Buses 102
2.4.2 Terminals 105
2.4.3 Mice 110
2.4.4 Printers 112
2.4.5 Telecommunications Equipment 117
2.4.6 Digital Cameras 125
2.4.7 Character Codes 127
2.5 SUMMARY 131
3 THE DIGITAL LOGIC LEVEL
3.1 GATES AND BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 135
3.1.1 Gates 136
3.1.2 Boolean Algebra 138
3.1.3 Implementation of Boolean Functions 140
3.1.4 Circuit Equivalence 141
3.2 BASIC DIGITAL LOGIC CIRCUITS 146
3.2.1 Integrated Circuits 146
3.2.2 Combinational Circuits 147
3.2.3 Arithmetic Circuits 152
3.2.4 Clocks 157
3.3 MEMORY 159
3.3.1 Latches 159
3.3.2 Flip-Flops 161
3.3.3 Registers 163
3.3.4 Memory Organization 164
3.3.5 Memory Chips 168
3.3.6 RAMs and ROMs 171
3.4 CPU CHIPS AND BUSES 173
3.4.1 CPU Chips 174
3.4.2 Computer Buses 176
3.4.3 Bus Width 178
3.4.4 Bus Clocking 180
3.4.5 Bus Arbitration 184
3.4.6 Bus Operations 187
3.5 EXAMPLE CPU CHIPS 189
3.5.1 The Pentium 4 189
3.5.2 The UltraSPARC UI 196
3.5.3 The 8051 200
3.6 EXAMPLE BUSES 202
3.6.1 The ISA Bus 203
3.6.2 The PCI Bus 204
3.6.3 PCI Express 212
3.6.4 The Universal Serial Bus 217
3.7 IhJTERFACING 221
3.7.1 I/O Chips 221
3.7.2 Address Decoding 222
3.8 SUMMARY 225
4 THE MICROARCHITECTURE LEVEL
4.1 AN EXAMPLE MICROARCHITECTURE 231
4.1.1 The Data Path 232
4.1.2 Microinstructions 239
4.1.3 Microinstruction Control: The Mic-1 241
4.2 AN EXAMPLE ISA: IJVM 246
4.2.1 Stacks 246
4.2.2 The UVM Memory Model 248
4.2.3 The UVM Instruction Set 250
4.2.4 Compiling Java to IJVM 254
4.3 AN EXAMPLE IMPLEMENTATION 255
4.3.1 Microinstructions and Notation 255
4.3.2 Implementation of UVM Using the Mic-1 260
4.4 DESIGN OF THE MICROARCHITECTURE LEVEL 271
4.4.1 Speed versus Cost 271
4.4.2 Reducing the Execution Path Length 273
4.4.3 A Design with Prefetching: The Mic-2 281
4.4.4 A Pipelined Design: The Mic-3 281
4.4.5 A Seven-Stage Pipeline: The Mic-4 288
4.5 IMPROVING PERFORMANCE 292
4.5.1 Cache Memory 293
4.5.2 Branch Prediction 299
4.5.3 Out-of-Order Execution and Register Renaming 304
4.5.4 Speculative Execution 309
4.6 EXAMPLES OF THE MICROARCHITECTURE LEVEL 311
4.6.1 The Microarchitecture of the Pentium 4 CPU 312
4.6.2 The Microarchitecture of the UltraSPARC-HI Cu CPU 317
4.6.3 The Microarchitecture of the 8051 CPU 323
4.7 COMPARISON OF THE PENTIUM, ULTRASPARC, AND 8051 325
4.8 SUMMARY 326
5 THE INSTRUCTION SET ARCHITECTURE LEVEL 331
5.1 OVERVIEW OF THE ISA LEVEL 333
5.1.1 Properties of the ISA Level 333
5.1.2 Memory Models 335
5.1.3 Registers 337
5.1.4 Instructions 339
5.1.5 Overview of the Pentium 4 ISA Level 339
5.1.6 Overview of the UltraSPARC III ISA Level 341
5.1.7 Overview of the 8051 ISA Level 345
5.2 DATATYPES 348
5.2.1 Numeric Data Types 348
5.2.2 Nonnumeric Data Types 349
5.2.3 Data Types on the Pentium 4 350
5.2.4 Data Types on the UltraSPARC III 350
5.2.5 Data Types on the 8051 351
5.3 INSTRUCTION FORMATS 351
5.3.1 Design Criteria for Instruction Formats 352
5.3.2 Expanding Opcodes 354
5.3.3 The Pentium 4 Instruction Formats 357
5.3.4 The UltraSPARC ni Instruction Formats 358
5.3.5 The 8051 Instruction Formats 359
5.4 ADDRESSING 360
5.4.1 Addressing Modes 360
5.4.2 Immediate Addressing 361
5.4.3 Direct Addressing 361
5.4.4 Register Addressing 361
5.4.5 Register Indirect Addressing 362
5.4.6 Indexed Addressing 363
5.4.7 Based-Indexed Addressing 365
5.4.8 Stack Addressing 365
5.4.9 Addressing Modes for Branch Instructions 369
5.4.10 Orthogonality of Opcodes and Addressing Modes 369
5.4.11 The Pentium 4 Addressing Modes 371
5.4.12 The UltraSPARC III Addressing Modes 373
5.4.13 The 8051 Addressing Modes 373
5.4.14 Discussion of Addressing Modes 374
5.5 INSTRUCTION TYPES 375
5.5.1 Data Movement Instructions 375
5.5.2 Dyadic Operations 376
5.5.3 Monadic Operations 377
5.5.4 Comparisons and Conditional Branches 379
5.5.5 Procedure Call Instructions 381
5.5.6 Loop Control 382
5.5.7 Input/Output 383
5.5.8 The Pentium 4 Instructions 386
5.5.9 The UltraSPARC III Instructions 389
5.5.10 The 8051 Instructions 392
5.5.11 Comparison of Instruction Sets 392
5.6 FLOW OF CONTROL 395
5.6.1 Sequential Flow of Control and Branches 395
5.6.2 Procedures 396
5.6.3 Coroutines 401
5.6.5 Traps 404
5.6.5 Interrupts 404
5.7 A DETAILED EXAMPLE: THE TOWERS OF HANOI 408
5.7.1 The Towers of Hanoi in Pentium 4 Assembly Language 409
5.7.2 The Towers of Hanoi in UltraSPARC III Assembly Language 409
5.8 THE IA-64 ARCHITECTURE AND THE ITANIUM 2 411
5.8.1 The Problem with the Pentium 4 413
5.8.2 The IA-64 Model: Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing 414
5.8.3 Reducing Memory References 415
5.8.4 Instruction Scheduling 416
5.8.5 Reducing Conditional Branches: Predication 418
5.8.6 Speculative Loads 420
5.9 SUMMARY 421
6 THE OPERATING SYSTEM MACHINE LEVEL
6.1 VIRTUAL MEMORY 428
6.1.1 Paging 429
6.1.2 Implementation of Paging 431
6.1.3 Demand Paging and the Working Set Model 433
6.1.4 Page Replacement Policy 436
6.1.5 Page Size and Fragmentation 438
6.1.6 Segmentation 439
6.1.7 Implementation of Segmentation 442
6.1.8 Virtual Memory on the Pentium 4 445
6.1.9 Virtual Memory on the UltraSPARC m 450
6.1.10 Virtual Memory and Caching 452
6.2 VIRTUAL I/O INSTRUCTIONS 453
6.2.1 Files 454
6.2.2 Implementation of Virtual I/O Instructions 455
6.2.3 Directory Management Instructions 459
6.3 VIRTUAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR PARALLEL PROCESSING 460
6.3.1 Process Creation 461
6.3.2 Race Conditions 462
6.3.3 Process Synchronization Using Semaphores 466
6.4 EXAMPLE OPERATING SYSTEMS 470
6.4.1 Introduction 470
6.4.2 Examples of Virtual Memory 479
6.4.3 Examples of Virtual I/O 482
6.4.4 Examples of Process Management 493
7 THE ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE LEVEL
7.1 INTRODUCTION TO ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE 508
7.1.1 What Is an Assembly Language? 508
7.1.2 Why Use Assembly Language? 509
7.1.3 Format of an Assembly Language Statement 512
7.1.4 Pseudoinstructions 515
7.2 MACROS 517
7.2.1 Macro Definition, Call, and Expansion 518
7.2.2 Macros with Parameters 520
7.2.3 Advanced Features 521
7.2.4 Implementation of a Macro Facility in an Assembler 521
7.3 THE ASSEMBLY PROCESS 522
7.3.1 Two-Pass Assemblers 522
7.3.2 Pass One 523
7.3.3 Pass Two 527
7.3.4 The Symbol Table 529
7.4 LINKING AND LOADING 530
7.4.1 Tasks Performed by the Linker 532
7.4.2 Structure of an Object Module 535
7.4.3 Binding Time and Dynamic Relocation 536
7.4.4 Dynamic Linking 539
8 PARALLEL COMPUTER ARCHITECTURES
8.1 ON-CHIP PARALELLISM 548
8.1.1 Instruction-Level Parallelism 549
8.1.2 On-Chip Multithreading 556
8.1.3 Single-Chip Multiprocessors 562
8.2 COPROCESSORS 567
8.2.1 Network Processors 568
8.2.2 Media Processors 576
8.2.3 Cryptoprocessors 581
8.3 SHARED-MEMORY MULTIPROCESSORS 582
8.3.1 Multiprocessors vs. Multicomputers 582
8.3.2 Memory Semantics 590
8.3.3 UMA Symmetric Multiprocessor Architectures 594
8.3.4 NUMA Multiprocessors 602
8.3.5 COMA Multiprocessors 611
8.4 MESSAGE-PASSING MULTICOMPUTERS 612
8.4.1 Interconnection Networks 614
8.4.2 MPPs—Massively Parallel Processors 617
8.4.3 Cluster Computing 627
8.4.4 Communication Software for Multicomputers 632
8.4.5 Scheduling 635
8.4.6 Application-Level Shared Memory 636
8.4.7 Performance 643
8.5 GRID COMPUTING 649
9 READING LIST AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
9.1 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING 655
9.1.1 Introduction and General Works 655
9.1.2 Computer Systems Organization 657
9.1.3 The Digital Logic Level 658
9.1.4 The Microarchitecture Level 659
9.1.5 The Instruction Set Architecture Level 659
9.1.6 The Operatiiig System Machine Level 660
9.1.7 The Assembly Language Level 661
9.1.8 Parallel Computer Architectures 661
9.1.9 Binary and Floating-Point Numbers 663
9.1.10 Assembly Language Progranuning 664
9.2 ALPHABETICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY 664
A BINARY NUMBERS
A.1 FINnE-PRECISIGN NUMBERS 679
A.2 RADIX NUMBER SYSTEMS 681
A.3 CONVERSION FROM ONE RADIX TO ANOTHER 683
A.4 NEGATIVE BINARY NUMBERS 685
A.5 BINARY ARITHMETIC 688
B FLOATING-POINT NUMBERS
B.l PRINCIPLES OF FLOATING POINT 692
B.2 IEEE FLOATING-POINT STANDARD 754 694
C ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE PROGRAMMING
C.l OVERVIEW 702
C.1.1 Assembly Language 702
C.l.2 A Small Assembly Language Program 703
C.2 THE 8088 PROCESSOR 704
C.2.1 The Processor Cycle 705
C.2,2 The General Registers 705
C.2.3 Pointer Registers 708
C.3 MEMORY AND ADDRESSING 709
C.3.1 Memory Organization and Segments 709
C.3.2 Addressing 711
C.4 THE 8088 INSTRUCTION SET 715
C.4.1 Move, Copy and Arithmetic 715
C.4.2 Logical, Bit and Shift Operations 718
C.4.3 Loop and Repetitive String Operations 718
C.4.4 Jump and Call Instructions 719
C.4.5 Subroutine Calls 721
C.4.6 System Calls and System Subroutines 723
C.4.7 Final Remarks on the Instruction Set 725
C.5 THE ASSEMBLER 725
C.5.1 Introduction 726
C.5.2 The ACK-Based Tutorial Assembler as88 727
C.5.3 Some Differences with Other 8088 Assemblers 730
C.6 THE TRACER 732
C.6.1 Tracer Commands 734
C.7 GETTING STARTED 735
C.8 EXAMPLES 736
C.8.1 Hello World Example 736
C.8.2 General Registers Example 740
C.8.3 Call Command and Pointer Registers 742
C.8.4 Debugging an Array Print Program 744
C.8.5 String Manipulation and String Instructions 748
C.8.6 Dispatch Tables 750
C.8.7 Buffered and Random File Access 7521 INTRODUCTION
1.1 STRUCTURED COMPUTER ORGANIZATION 2
1.1.1 Languages, Levels, and Virtual Machines 2
1.1.2 Contemporary Multilevel Machines 5
1.1.3 Evolution of Multilevel Machines 8
1.2 MILESTONES IN COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE 13
1.2.1 The Zeroth Generation—^Mechanical Computers (1642-1945) 14
1.2.2 The First Generation—Vacuum Tubes (1945-1955) 16
1.2.3 The Second Generation—^Transistors (1955-1965) 19
1.2.4 The Third Generation—Integrated Circuits (1965-1980) 22
1.2.5 The Fourth Generation—^Very Large Scale Integration (1980-?) 23
1.2.6 The Fifth Generation—^Invisible Computers 26
1.3 THE COMPUTER ZOO 27
1.3.1 Technological and Economic Forces 27
1.3.2 The Computer Spectrum 29
1.3.3 Disposable Computers 29
1.3.4 Microcontrollers 31
1.3.5 Game Computers 33
1.3.6 Personal Computers 34
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1.3.7 Servers 34
1.3.8 Collections of Workstations 34
1.3.9 Mainframes 36
1.4 EXAMPLE COMPUTER FAMILIES 37
1.4.1 Introduction to the Pentium 4 37
1.4.2 Introduction to the UltraSPARC III 42
1.4.3 Introduction to the 8051 44
1.5 METRIC UNITS 46
1.6 OUTLINE OF THIS BOOK 47
2 COMPUTER SYSTEMS ORGANIZATION
2.1 PROCESSORS 51
2.1.1 CPU Organization 52
2.1.2 Instruction Execution 54
2.1.3 RISC versus CISC 58
2.1.4 Design Principles for Modem Computers 59
2.1.5 Instruction-Level Parallelism 61
2.1.6 Processor-Level Parallelism 65
2.2 PRIMARY MEMORY 69
2.2.1 Bits 69
2.2.2 Memory Addresses 70
2.2.3 Byte Ordering 71
2.2.4 Error-Correcting Codes 73
2.2.5 Cache Memory 77
2.2.6 Memory Packaging and Types 80
2.3 SECONDARY MEMORY 81
2.3.1 Memory Hierarchies 81
2.3.2 Magnetic Disks 82
2.3.3 Floppy Disks 86
2.3.4 IDE Disks 86
2.3.5 SCSI Disks 88
2.3.6 RAID 89
2.3.7 CD-ROMs 93
2.3.8 CD-Recordables 97
2.3.9 CD-Rewritables 99
2.3.10 DVD 99
2.3.11 Blu-Ray 102
2.4 INPUT/OUTPUT 102
2.4.1 Buses 102
2.4.2 Terminals 105
2.4.3 Mice 110
2.4.4 Printers 112
2.4.5 Telecommunications Equipment 117
2.4.6 Digital Cameras 125
2.4.7 Character Codes 127
2.5 SUMMARY 131
3 THE DIGITAL LOGIC LEVEL
3.1 GATES AND BOOLEAN ALGEBRA 135
3.1.1 Gates 136
3.1.2 Boolean Algebra 138
3.1.3 Implementation of Boolean Functions 140
3.1.4 Circuit Equivalence 141
3.2 BASIC DIGITAL LOGIC CIRCUITS 146
3.2.1 Integrated Circuits 146
3.2.2 Combinational Circuits 147
3.2.3 Arithmetic Circuits 152
3.2.4 Clocks 157
3.3 MEMORY 159
3.3.1 Latches 159
3.3.2 Flip-Flops 161
3.3.3 Registers 163
3.3.4 Memory Organization 164
3.3.5 Memory Chips 168
3.3.6 RAMs and ROMs 171
3.4 CPU CHIPS AND BUSES 173
3.4.1 CPU Chips 174
3.4.2 Computer Buses 176
3.4.3 Bus Width 178
3.4.4 Bus Clocking 180
3.4.5 Bus Arbitration 184
3.4.6 Bus Operations 187
3.5 EXAMPLE CPU CHIPS 189
3.5.1 The Pentium 4 189
3.5.2 The UltraSPARC UI 196
3.5.3 The 8051 200
3.6 EXAMPLE BUSES 202
3.6.1 The ISA Bus 203
3.6.2 The PCI Bus 204
3.6.3 PCI Express 212
3.6.4 The Universal Serial Bus 217
3.7 IhJTERFACING 221
3.7.1 I/O Chips 221
3.7.2 Address Decoding 222
3.8 SUMMARY 225
4 THE MICROARCHITECTURE LEVEL
4.1 AN EXAMPLE MICROARCHITECTURE 231
4.1.1 The Data Path 232
4.1.2 Microinstructions 239
4.1.3 Microinstruction Control: The Mic-1 241
4.2 AN EXAMPLE ISA: IJVM 246
4.2.1 Stacks 246
4.2.2 The UVM Memory Model 248
4.2.3 The UVM Instruction Set 250
4.2.4 Compiling Java to IJVM 254
4.3 AN EXAMPLE IMPLEMENTATION 255
4.3.1 Microinstructions and Notation 255
4.3.2 Implementation of UVM Using the Mic-1 260
4.4 DESIGN OF THE MICROARCHITECTURE LEVEL 271
4.4.1 Speed versus Cost 271
4.4.2 Reducing the Execution Path Length 273
4.4.3 A Design with Prefetching: The Mic-2 281
4.4.4 A Pipelined Design: The Mic-3 281
4.4.5 A Seven-Stage Pipeline: The Mic-4 288
4.5 IMPROVING PERFORMANCE 292
4.5.1 Cache Memory 293
4.5.2 Branch Prediction 299
4.5.3 Out-of-Order Execution and Register Renaming 304
4.5.4 Speculative Execution 309
4.6 EXAMPLES OF THE MICROARCHITECTURE LEVEL 311
4.6.1 The Microarchitecture of the Pentium 4 CPU 312
4.6.2 The Microarchitecture of the UltraSPARC-HI Cu CPU 317
4.6.3 The Microarchitecture of the 8051 CPU 323
4.7 COMPARISON OF THE PENTIUM, ULTRASPARC, AND 8051 325
4.8 SUMMARY 326
5 THE INSTRUCTION SET ARCHITECTURE LEVEL 331
5.1 OVERVIEW OF THE ISA LEVEL 333
5.1.1 Properties of the ISA Level 333
5.1.2 Memory Models 335
5.1.3 Registers 337
5.1.4 Instructions 339
5.1.5 Overview of the Pentium 4 ISA Level 339
5.1.6 Overview of the UltraSPARC III ISA Level 341
5.1.7 Overview of the 8051 ISA Level 345
5.2 DATATYPES 348
5.2.1 Numeric Data Types 348
5.2.2 Nonnumeric Data Types 349
5.2.3 Data Types on the Pentium 4 350
5.2.4 Data Types on the UltraSPARC III 350
5.2.5 Data Types on the 8051 351
5.3 INSTRUCTION FORMATS 351
5.3.1 Design Criteria for Instruction Formats 352
5.3.2 Expanding Opcodes 354
5.3.3 The Pentium 4 Instruction Formats 357
5.3.4 The UltraSPARC ni Instruction Formats 358
5.3.5 The 8051 Instruction Formats 359
5.4 ADDRESSING 360
5.4.1 Addressing Modes 360
5.4.2 Immediate Addressing 361
5.4.3 Direct Addressing 361
5.4.4 Register Addressing 361
5.4.5 Register Indirect Addressing 362
5.4.6 Indexed Addressing 363
5.4.7 Based-Indexed Addressing 365
5.4.8 Stack Addressing 365
5.4.9 Addressing Modes for Branch Instructions 369
5.4.10 Orthogonality of Opcodes and Addressing Modes 369
5.4.11 The Pentium 4 Addressing Modes 371
5.4.12 The UltraSPARC III Addressing Modes 373
5.4.13 The 8051 Addressing Modes 373
5.4.14 Discussion of Addressing Modes 374
5.5 INSTRUCTION TYPES 375
5.5.1 Data Movement Instructions 375
5.5.2 Dyadic Operations 376
5.5.3 Monadic Operations 377
5.5.4 Comparisons and Conditional Branches 379
5.5.5 Procedure Call Instructions 381
5.5.6 Loop Control 382
5.5.7 Input/Output 383
5.5.8 The Pentium 4 Instructions 386
5.5.9 The UltraSPARC III Instructions 389
5.5.10 The 8051 Instructions 392
5.5.11 Comparison of Instruction Sets 392
5.6 FLOW OF CONTROL 395
5.6.1 Sequential Flow of Control and Branches 395
5.6.2 Procedures 396
5.6.3 Coroutines 401
5.6.5 Traps 404
5.6.5 Interrupts 404
5.7 A DETAILED EXAMPLE: THE TOWERS OF HANOI 408
5.7.1 The Towers of Hanoi in Pentium 4 Assembly Language 409
5.7.2 The Towers of Hanoi in UltraSPARC III Assembly Language 409
5.8 THE IA-64 ARCHITECTURE AND THE ITANIUM 2 411
5.8.1 The Problem with the Pentium 4 413
5.8.2 The IA-64 Model: Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing 414
5.8.3 Reducing Memory References 415
5.8.4 Instruction Scheduling 416
5.8.5 Reducing Conditional Branches: Predication 418
5.8.6 Speculative Loads 420
5.9 SUMMARY 421
6 THE OPERATING SYSTEM MACHINE LEVEL
6.1 VIRTUAL MEMORY 428
6.1.1 Paging 429
6.1.2 Implementation of Paging 431
6.1.3 Demand Paging and the Working Set Model 433
6.1.4 Page Replacement Policy 436
6.1.5 Page Size and Fragmentation 438
6.1.6 Segmentation 439
6.1.7 Implementation of Segmentation 442
6.1.8 Virtual Memory on the Pentium 4 445
6.1.9 Virtual Memory on the UltraSPARC m 450
6.1.10 Virtual Memory and Caching 452
6.2 VIRTUAL I/O INSTRUCTIONS 453
6.2.1 Files 454
6.2.2 Implementation of Virtual I/O Instructions 455
6.2.3 Directory Management Instructions 459
6.3 VIRTUAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR PARALLEL PROCESSING 460
6.3.1 Process Creation 461
6.3.2 Race Conditions 462
6.3.3 Process Synchronization Using Semaphores 466
6.4 EXAMPLE OPERATING SYSTEMS 470
6.4.1 Introduction 470
6.4.2 Examples of Virtual Memory 479
6.4.3 Examples of Virtual I/O 482
6.4.4 Examples of Process Management 493
7 THE ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE LEVEL
7.1 INTRODUCTION TO ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE 508
7.1.1 What Is an Assembly Language? 508
7.1.2 Why Use Assembly Language? 509
7.1.3 Format of an Assembly Language Statement 512
7.1.4 Pseudoinstructions 515
7.2 MACROS 517
7.2.1 Macro Definition, Call, and Expansion 518
7.2.2 Macros with Parameters 520
7.2.3 Advanced Features 521
7.2.4 Implementation of a Macro Facility in an Assembler 521
7.3 THE ASSEMBLY PROCESS 522
7.3.1 Two-Pass Assemblers 522
7.3.2 Pass One 523
7.3.3 Pass Two 527
7.3.4 The Symbol Table 529
7.4 LINKING AND LOADING 530
7.4.1 Tasks Performed by the Linker 532
7.4.2 Structure of an Object Module 535
7.4.3 Binding Time and Dynamic Relocation 536
7.4.4 Dynamic Linking 539
8 PARALLEL COMPUTER ARCHITECTURES
8.1 ON-CHIP PARALELLISM 548
8.1.1 Instruction-Level Parallelism 549
8.1.2 On-Chip Multithreading 556
8.1.3 Single-Chip Multiprocessors 562
8.2 COPROCESSORS 567
8.2.1 Network Processors 568
8.2.2 Media Processors 576
8.2.3 Cryptoprocessors 581
8.3 SHARED-MEMORY MULTIPROCESSORS 582
8.3.1 Multiprocessors vs. Multicomputers 582
8.3.2 Memory Semantics 590
8.3.3 UMA Symmetric Multiprocessor Architectures 594
8.3.4 NUMA Multiprocessors 602
8.3.5 COMA Multiprocessors 611
8.4 MESSAGE-PASSING MULTICOMPUTERS 612
8.4.1 Interconnection Networks 614
8.4.2 MPPs—Massively Parallel Processors 617
8.4.3 Cluster Computing 627
8.4.4 Communication Software for Multicomputers 632
8.4.5 Scheduling 635
8.4.6 Application-Level Shared Memory 636
8.4.7 Performance 643
8.5 GRID COMPUTING 649
9 READING LIST AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
9.1 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING 655
9.1.1 Introduction and General Works 655
9.1.2 Computer Systems Organization 657
9.1.3 The Digital Logic Level 658
9.1.4 The Microarchitecture Level 659
9.1.5 The Instruction Set Architecture Level 659
9.1.6 The Operatiiig System Machine Level 660
9.1.7 The Assembly Language Level 661
9.1.8 Parallel Computer Architectures 661
9.1.9 Binary and Floating-Point Numbers 663
9.1.10 Assembly Language Progranuning 664
9.2 ALPHABETICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY 664
A BINARY NUMBERS
A.1 FINnE-PRECISIGN NUMBERS 679
A.2 RADIX NUMBER SYSTEMS 681
A.3 CONVERSION FROM ONE RADIX TO ANOTHER 683
A.4 NEGATIVE BINARY NUMBERS 685
A.5 BINARY ARITHMETIC 688
B FLOATING-POINT NUMBERS
B.l PRINCIPLES OF FLOATING POINT 692
B.2 IEEE FLOATING-POINT STANDARD 754 694
C ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE PROGRAMMING
C.l OVERVIEW 702
C.1.1 Assembly Language 702
C.l.2 A Small Assembly Language Program 703
C.2 THE 8088 PROCESSOR 704
C.2.1 The Processor Cycle 705
C.2,2 The General Registers 705
C.2.3 Pointer Registers 708
C.3 MEMORY AND ADDRESSING 709
C.3.1 Memory Organization and Segments 709
C.3.2 Addressing 711
C.4 THE 8088 INSTRUCTION SET 715
C.4.1 Move, Copy and Arithmetic 715
C.4.2 Logical, Bit and Shift Operations 718
C.4.3 Loop and Repetitive String Operations 718
C.4.4 Jump and Call Instructions 719
C.4.5 Subroutine Calls 721
C.4.6 System Calls and System Subroutines 723
C.4.7 Final Remarks on the Instruction Set 725
C.5 THE ASSEMBLER 725
C.5.1 Introduction 726
C.5.2 The ACK-Based Tutorial Assembler as88 727
C.5.3 Some Differences with Other 8088 Assemblers 730
C.6 THE TRACER 732
C.6.1 Tracer Commands 734
C.7 GETTING STARTED 735
C.8 EXAMPLES 736
C.8.1 Hello World Example 736
C.8.2 General Registers Example 740
C.8.3 Call Command and Pointer Registers 742
C.8.4 Debugging an Array Print Program 744
C.8.5 String Manipulation and String Instructions 748
C.8.6 Dispatch Tables 750
C.8.7 Buffered and Random File Access 752
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