Current studies on the Indus civilization /
Current studies on the Indus civilization /
edited by Toshiki Osada, Akinori Uesugi.
- New Delhi : Manohar Publishers & Distributors, 2011.
- v. <1-7, 8 (2 pts.), 9> : 29 cm.
"An earlier version of this work was published under the title Linguistic archaeology and the human past in 2008"--T.p. verso. Vol. 5: edited by Viveka Dangi. Vol. 8, pt. 1 (text) has subtitle: Inter-regional interaction and urbanism in the ancient Indus valley : a geological provinience study of Harappa's rock and mineral assemblage / Randall William Law ; v. 8, pt. 2: Appendices and references
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword Toshiki Osada i
Preface Jonathan Mark Kenoyer iii
Acknowledgements vii
Dedication
CHAPTER 1- OBJECTIVE, OVERVIEW AND THEORY, HARAPPA AND LINES OFINQUIRY i
Chapter introduction - The principal research objective i
Indus Civilization overview AND theoretical ORIENTATION j
TtjeIndus Civilization ?
Urbanism and itspreconditions 4
Inter-regional interaction, long-distance trade and the controlofessential resources 6
Rock and mineralartifacts andgeologicprovenience analysis 11
Harappa '5
Generallocation and layout 14
History ofdiscovery andresearch '4
Harappa's rock and mineralartifact assemblage ><5
Harappa's chronological/culturalsequence 17
Ravi Phase - Period i (> J300 BC-ca.iSoo BC) • . >9
Kot Diji Phase - Period i (ca.iSoo BC to i6oo BC)
Harappa Phase - Period 3(i6oo BC to 1900 BC)
Period 5A
Period jB
Period ?C
Transitional and Late Harappa Phases - Periods 4&5(1900 BC toNon-habitation areas at Harappa ^4
Three LINES OF INQUIRY
First line of inquiry - Harappan interaction/acquisition networks and their extent ^4
Second line ofinquiry - Diachronic changes ininteraction/acquisition patterns
Two ancillary queries conccrning diachronic changes
Diachronic changes in assemblage composition
Diachronic changes in the acquisition and use ofbulk stone goods 18
Hjird line ofinquiry - Site-wise synchronic variations ^9
Chapter c;onc:lusion-An OUTLINE OFTHIS BOOK
CHAPTER2-HARAPPA INCONTEXT "
Chapter introduction - The Greater Indus region ^'
(iF.OGRAPHKCONTKXT "
(iFOI.C)GIC CONTEXT "
10
10
11
II
11
17
18
TheAlluvial Plains 35
The Highlands 35
Temporal-cultural CONTEXTS 36
Traditions, eras and phases 37
Ancient settlements ofthe upper Indus Basin 37
The transforming cultural landscapes oftheIndus Tradition 40
Regionalization era(Early Harappan Period) 41
ca. 3300 to iSooBC 41
1800 to 1600 BC 43
Integration era - 2600 to 1900BC 45
Localization era- 1900 BC to Chapter conclusion 48
CHAPTER 3- STRATEGIES AND METHODS FOR SOURCING STONE AND METAL ARTIFACTS •••• 49
Chapter introduction - Strategies and methods 49
Research strategies
Usingprimarygeologic reference materials to locatepotentialsources 5o
Field-checkingandsamplingpotential Harappan rock and mineralsources 51
Tapping othersources ofinformation:Johris, pansaris andpattarwalas ^4
We "Provenience Postulate"anddefiningageographic scale ofprovenience resolution 56
Methods of material identification and characterization
Visualinspection/comparison and basic mineralogical testing ^g
X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis ^^
Electron microprobe analysis (EMPA)
Spectrometric analysis
Instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) 61
Mf.THODS of DATA analysis
Preliminary data analysis / bivariateplotting 61
Multivariate approaches 63
Choice ofmethods (, ^
Canonical Discriminant Analysis (, ^
Discrimination
Classification (and misclassification)
ClusterAnalysis
6s Chapter conclusion - Statements of provenience c->s
C:HAI>TER 4- THE ROCK AND MINERAL. ARTEKACT ASSEMBLAtiE AT HARAPPA
TROIUK TION - ORt.ANIZINti AND I'RESENTINC THK ROttK AND MINERAL ASSEMBLAGE
Determining the comeosition oe the rock and mineral artieact assemblage 6»
Major roc k and mineral varieties
Steatite
Microcrystalline silicates
Chert
Agate-Jasper
Siliciclastic sedimentary rocks
Copper and copper minerals
Minor ROCK AND MINERAL VARIETIES
Vesuvianite-Grossular
Igneous andMetamorphic rocks
Gypsum
Limestone
Chalk
Variegated andfossiUferous limestone
Lapis Lazuli go
Crystalline quartz go
Gold 8,
"Emestite" 8j
Amazonite 84
"Ochre"minerals 84
Lead minerals 85
Serpentine 85
Miscellaneous rock and mineral varieties 86
Almandinegarnet 86
Calcite 86
Fluorite 86
Fossils 88
Kaolinite claystone 88
Mica 88
Nephritejade 88
Prehnite 89
Sulfur 89
Tourmaline 89
Turquoise 89
Material varieties at Harappa known only from previous excavations 9,
Silver 91
Arsenical minerals: Lollingite and Orpiment 92,
Fuller's F.arth 9^
Spatial and temporal aspects of Harappas rock and mineral assemblage 9^
C.ontextualizing the rock and mineralassemblage 9^
The spatialand temporaldistribution ofthe rock and mineral assemblage 9,
Spatialand temporal variations tn the rock and mineral assemblage 9^
Interpretation of the rock and mineral assemblage's composition and variability 100
79
ChapterCONCLUSION '°-
CHAPTER5- GRINDINGSTONE ACQUISITION NETWORKS io?
Chapter introduction-The importance of GRiNDiNGSTONES 103
Potential grindingstone sources in and around the upper Indus Basin 104
The Kirana Hills 104
The Sulaiman Range 107
The SaltRange 107
Bikanerarea occurrences 107
Thefoothills zone ofthe Himalayas 107
Tosham Hills andAravalli Outliers 107
Determining the geologic provenience of Harappa's grindingstones 113
The geologic provenience composition of Harappa's grindingstone assemblage 114
Pab sandstone 115
Delhi quartzite 119
Gray sandstone 111
Kirana Hills stone ' ^ i
"Unknown" Provenience ' ^ 3
DIACHRONIC and spatial variations in grindingstone source utilization at HaRAPPA 11}
Site-wise diachronic trends ingrindingstone source utilization ' ^S
Ravi Phase - Period i (ca. 3300 BCto2800 BC) ' ^5
Kot Diji Phase - Period 2(2800 to 2600 BC) 116
Harappa Phase - Period3A (2600 to 2430 BC) iig
Harappa Phase - Period3B (24^0 to 2200 BC)
Harappa Phase - Period3C (2200 to 1900 BC) andsurface/disturbed contextfinds ,^^
TransitionalandLate Harappa Phase - Periods4 (ca. igoo to <1300 BC) ^
Discussion - Patterns of grindingstone acquisition and discard at Harappa ,3,
Brief remarks on grindingstone AcquisiTiON patterns AT otherIndus cities , 2.
Chapter conclusion
143
CHAPTER 6- CHERT ACQUISITION NETWORKS
Chapter introduction-The three main types of chert AT Harappa ',44
Chert in the Greater Indus region
,, ,, I4S C,hert at Harappa Purple ch„t/c„.lchdonv.mhothbr m.mor E.kl, Har.pp., su„.var,et,e7. '.^9
Black-brown chert
Potential iounes ofblack-hrawn chert
I Sakcsar I.imcstonc. Salt Range, Punjab
(.rtat I imcstonc, |ammu
I Moro Formation. Bolan Pass. Balochistan ,
—
INAA/CDA comparison ofblack chert artifacts to potential sources 161
Tan-Gray (Rohri?) CHERT i6j
Rohri Hills, Sindh j<5^
Rohri 164
Adam Sultan
KotDiji
Kandarki j
Otherpotentialsources oftan-gray chert ^
Mohmand Agency, NWFP ^
Kalat, Balochistan ^^^
BuriKhel, Salt Range, Punjab
Tan-gray chertsources not included in this study ,
INAA/CDA comparison oftan-gray chert artifacts to potentialsources ,y^
Chapter CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 7-STEATITE ACQUISITION NETWORKS 178
Chapter introduction - "steatite civilization" 178
Steatite in the Indus Tradition 179
The steatite assemblage at Harappaand samples selectedfor thisstudy 181
Steatite samplesfrom otherprehistoric sites 186
Identifying potential steatite sources for Indus Tradition peoples 189
Steatitepetrogenesis 189
Samplinggeologic sources 192
Steatite occurrences oftheGreater Indus region 19^
Steatiteoccurrences in Balochistan 193
Las Bela District 193
Kalat District 197
Zhob District 197
Steatite occurrences in theNWFP, FATA and Northern Areas 199
Kurram Agency 199
KhyberAgency 101
Peshawar District 101
Mohmand Agency 101
Chitral District 2,01
Northern Areas 2,02
Swat District ^04
Hazara District
Steatite occurrences in the Himalayas
Jammu and Kashmir 2^0^
Himachal Pradesh 2.07
Uttaranchai 208
Steatite occurrences in Rajasthan 2.08
Northern Rajasthan 109
Jhunjhunu District Z09
Alwar and Dausa districts 109
Southern Rajasthan 109
Dolomiticoccurrences sampled 11 z
Ultramafic occurrences sampled 112
Steatiteoccurrences in Gujarat 211
Abriefnote onsteatite occurrences in other regions 11 j
AGEOLOGIC PROVENIENCE STUDY OF STEATITE ARTIFACTS FROM HaRAPPA AND SEVEN OTHER SITES " ZI J
Pastgeologicprovenience studies ofsteatite artifacts j^
Details andresults ofthe present study ^j^
Initial CDA and CA comparisons ofall steatite artifacts to the geologic sources 115
Unfired steatite artifacts from Harappa j
Canonicaldiscriminantanalyses ^^,
Cluster analyses 2^2^^
Interpretation ofthe results 1j1
Type associations ^j2
Addressing the three lines ofinquiry 2.3 4
Unfired steatite artifacts from othersites 2.41
Mohenjo-daro 143
Mitathal 2.4$
Mehrgarh and Nausharo 2.45
"Unknown" Loralai site
Nagwada and GolaDhoro
Tepe Hissar
^ 151 Addendum: Recent findings from Dholavira and Rakhigarhi ^^^
Summary AND DISCUSSION
i54 Indus Tradition steatiteacquisition networks (provisional} ^
Heat-treatingsteatiteandthe desirefor "white-firing"stone ^^^
Chapter CONCLUSION
i6i
CHAPTER 8 - AGATE ACQUISITION NETWORKS
161
Chapter introduction - Sourcing Harappan agate
z6i Geoloov and potential sources of agate .n the Greater Indus recon and beyond
Theformation ofagateandagate deposits
165
Potential Harappan agate sources
166
Agate deposits in Gujarat
166
Southeastern Gujarat - Ratanpur area deposits
Northern Gujarat
170
Khandek, Eastern Kutch
171
Mardak Bet, Little Rann ofKutch
EasternGujarat and Saurashtra
Agate deposits elsewhere in SouthAsia
Peninsular, Centraland Eastern India o
Z78
Northern deposits
179
Sindh and Balochistan
z8o
Agate deposits beyond the Greater Indus region
Section conclusion
2,82 AGEOLOGIC PROVENIENCE STUDY OF AGATE ARTIFACTS FROM HaRAPPA AND FIVE OTHER SITES 183
Agatesource andproxy sourcesampks
283
Agate artifacts
Artifacts from Harappa
Artifacts from five other Indus Tradition sites ^gg
Analysis andcomparison ^
Interpretation (andqualification) oftheresults
Artifacts from Harappa
Artifacts from the five other Indus Tradition sites
Chapter CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 9-VESUVIANITE-GROSSULARACQUISITION NETWORKS 300
Chapter Introduction - Harappan "Jade"
The mineralogy OF VESUVIANITE-GROSSULAR jqq
Characterization andidentificationof vesuvianite-grossular at Harappa 301
Is VESUVIANITE-GROSSULAR HaRAPPAN "JADE"? jOS
Where didthe vesuvianite-grossular acquiredby Harappans come from? 307
Potential vesuvianite-grossular sources in India 3
Potential vesuvianite-grossularsources in Pakistan 3jj
An INAA comparison ofvesuvianite-grossular artifacts to samples from three sources 3,2,
Was vesuvianite-grossularexportedto Mesopotamia from the Greater Indus region? 316
Vesuvianite-grossular at Harappa and its association with "Ernestite" 318
Chapter conclusion
32.4
CHAPTER 10-ALABASTER ACQUISITION NETWORKS
Chapter Introduction - The different forms of gypsum at Indus Civilization sites 315
Alabaster AT Harappa
Potential sources of Harappan alabaster
319 Gypsum occurrences that are not alabastersources ^^^
Indus Alluvium/Thar Desert
32.9
Western Sindh
330
Gujarat
Salt Range
333
The SulaimanRange 334
Kohat 33S
Otherpotentialalabastersources 336
Afghanistan 336
Hazara(NWFP) 336
Jammu and Kashmir 336
Western Himalayas 336
Determining the geologic provenience of Harappan alabaster artifacts 337
Geologic background - Marine evaporites andisotope curvesforSand Srinseawater 337
The sulfur curve 338
The strontium curve 339
Sulfur andstrontium isotope analyses ofgeologic sources and Harappan artifacts ^40
Sulfur isotope analysis andresults
Strontium isotope analysis and results j4
Bivariate plotting ofthe Sand Sr analysis data
Chronologicalandspatialinterpretation ofalabasterprovenience determinations ^
Characterization of Mari "Diamonds" from Harappa j
Chapter conclusion 352.
CHAPTER 11-LIMESTONE ACQUISITIONNETWORKS 354
Chapter introduction - Limestone 354
Large limestone objects at Harappa and other Indus cities 554
Types OF limestone USED AT Harappa AND their potential sources
Sandylimestones
Banded yellow-brown andyellow-brown sandy limestone (BANDED)
Bright yellow-red sandy limestone (GOLDEN)
Gray-red sandy limestone (GRAY)
Three possible source formations for the sandy limestones used at Harappa ^^4
Micritic and white chalky-porcelaneous limestones (MICRITICand WHITE) ^^j
Section summary ^
Geologic provenience studies of Harappan limestone artifacts
Past studies, choice ofinstrumentation andpresentation ofdata
The archaeological andgeologic limestone datasets
Sample preparation, analysis and data evaluation
373
Pilot study usinf^ the initialsample set
ICP-MSanalysis of the initial set
^7S
INAA of the initial set
376
ICP-AES analysis of the initial set
^-'6
Analysis of the expanded set using IC!P-AES
(omparisons at the level ofgeologic formation ^
Banded yellow-brown and yellow brown sandy limestone ,^,
Bright or "GOLDEN" yellow-red sandy limestone (Jaisalmer stone?) 383
GRAY-red sandy limestone 3^6
Micritic limestone 388
WHITE chalky porcelaneous limestone 388
Sectionsummary 39°
Discussion - Large limestone objects at Harappa in context 591
Chapter conclusion 395
CHAPTER 12-LEAD,SILVERAND COPPER ACQUISITION NETWORKS 396
Chapter introduction - Metals 596
Lead, lead ARTIFACTS AND artifacts CONTAINING OR derived FROM LEAD 397
Lead ISOTOPEANALYSIS 397
EDTAsampling ofleadandsilver artifacts and analysis usingICP-MS J98
PresentingandplottingPb isotope data 4oo
Lead AND SILVER
The Pb isotope database ofpotential Harappan leadandsilversources 401
Lead deposits in Balochistan 403
Lead deposits in the NWFP 4os
Lead deposits in Jammu and Kashmir 4o6
Lead deposits in Himachal Pradesh and Lfttaranchal 4o8
Lead deposits in Rajasthan and Gujarat 411
Lead deposits elsewhere in South Asia 4' 5
Lead deposits inOman and Iran 415
Afghanistan
Plottingand evaluating the Pb isotope datafor South Asian lead deposits 4'7
Determining the probablegeologicproveniences ofleadartifactsfrom Harappa 4io
Lead ores
"Finished" lead artifacts 4i 3
Lead slags and lumps 42.6
Lead residues
Isotopic assays ofleadandsilver artifactsfrom otherprehistoric sites 432-
The sites and artifacts 43?
Results
Lead artifacts 441
Silver artifacts 44i
Interpretation ofthe Pb isotope datafor lead and silver artifactsfrom allsites 443
Ongoing studies ofleadandsilver artifacts and sources 446
Copper
Copper ore at Harappa 447
Ihe Phisotope database for copper ore sources 447
The Aravallis
TheHimalayas 450
Sources westof the IndusValley 451
Iran 453
Oman 45}
Analysis and results 454
Abriefnote onfurtherandongoingstudies ofHarappan copper 456
Comparison OF THE LEAD AND COPPER DATASETS 456
Chapter CONCLUSION 459
CHAPTER 13-SUMMARYANDDISCUSSION 461
Chapter INTRODUCTION 461
Summary 461
Ravi Phase - Period i (ca. 3300 BCto 2S00 BC) 463
Kot DijiPhase - Period2 (2800 to 2600 BC) 464
Harappa Phase - PeriodjA (2600 to 2450 BC) 464
Harappa Phase - PeriodjB (24^0 to2200 BC) 466
Harappa Phase - Period3C(2200 toipoo BC) 466
Transitionaland LateHarappa Phase - Periods 4&s (ca. 1900 to <1300 BC) 468
Provenience datafrom otherprehistoric sites - Seventh tothird millennium BC 468
Addressing the THREE LINES OF inquiry 471
Discussion 481
The development andnature ofHarappan rock andmineralacquisition networks 483
Competition andthe control ofessential resources 485
Harappan inter-cultural relationships
Theprimary rock and mineral resource catchment areas ofIndus cities
Harappas primary rock and mineral catchment area
Projected primary catchment areas for other Indus Civilization cities
Abriefconsideration ofundetected acquisition patterns at Harappa 496
Chapter conclusion
CHAPTER 14 - CONCLUDING REMARKS
Accomplishments andfuture directions
APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1.1: Provenience vs. Provenance.
APPENDIX 2.1: Major divisions of geologic time.
APPENDIX 2.1 Remarks and observations on the attr.t.on oe stone ,n r.vhrbeos
APPENDIX 3.1: Mohs' Mineral Hardness scale.
APPENDIX 4.1: X.RAV D.EERACT.ON analyses OE HaRAEEAN rock and mNERA,. art,pacts.
APPENDIX 4.2: Representative XRD scans.
492.
491
495
499
500
Soo
505
506
so-'
S'l
sn
S I s
A.Steatite fragment H1000/2084-1
B. Steatite fragment Hiooo/898 j-3
C.Steatite fragment H95/5719-99
D. Copper ore fragment H90/1070-12 ^^^
E. Copper ore fragment H95/4943-8 ^^^
EComposite offour XRD scans ofvesuvianite-grossular garnet fragments ^^
G. Alabaster fragment H2000/9999-130 ^^g
H. Lapis lazuliblocklet H2000/9999-77
I. "Ernestite" fragment Hiooo/3317-4 ^^g
J. "Ernestite" fragment Hzooo/3317-3
K. "Ochre" fragment H90/3073-7.4
L."Ochre" fragment Hiooo/9999-121
M. Leadorefragment H90/3011-147
N. Lead orefragment H99/8857-1
O. Leadorefragment H90/3193-6
P. Serpentine fragment H94/4999-13
Q. Serpentine beadH2000/9508-2
R. Calcite fragment H2000/2110-77
S.Eluorite fragment H97/6977-7
T.Mica fragment H87/62.
U. Prehnite fragment H96/6303-475
V. Sulfiir fragment 1^96/6219-43
W.Turquoise fragment H94/4999-213
X.Chagai "turquoise" sample from J.-E Jarrige
APPENDIX 4.3:Characterization of two basalt artifacts using EMPA.
APPENDIX 4.4: The Lapis Lazuli Question.
Introduction ^^^g
Lapis lazuli in Ancient South Asia ^^g
Potential Harappan lapis lazuli sources ^^i
Doubts about asource oflapis lazuli in the Chagai Hills ^^,
Asulfur isotope study oflapis lazuli artifacts and source samples ^ ^
The sample set
Samplepreparation and analysis ^^^
Results
Recent lapis lazuli provenience research using othertechniques
Conclusion
APPENDIX 4.5: The "Ernestite" Problem.
"Ernestite"
XRD analysis of"Ernestite"
EMPA of"Ernestite"
515
515
519
519
519
520
520
510
521
521
511
522
522
5i3
5iJ
52-4
52.4
515
540
541
541
544
544
547
Whatis"Ernestite" ? ^49
Where does "Ernestice" come from? ^^^
"Ernestite" as adrill-making material 55?
Conclusion
Addendum -A small test ^^
APPENDIX 4.6: A Late Harappan Kaolinite Bead.
Discovery
Identification
VP-SEM 556
XRD 558
Conclusion
APPENDIX 4.7: The identification, characterization and potential sources of a nephrite jade
amulet recovered from the cemetery area at HaRAPPA. 561
Description and discovery 561
Identification and characterization S^ •
XRD S6i
yP-SEM
Conclusion 5^5
Potential sources 5^ ?
Possibilities for future studies S68
APPENDIX 5-1: All querns and mullers (whole and fragmentary) recovered from
excavations and surveys at Harappa from 1986 to 1004. 569
APPENDIX 5.2: Grindingstones in the Harappa Museum from pre-1986 excavations. 591
APPENDIX 6.1:Elemental concentrations for 9 black chert artifacts from Harappa. 59^
APPENDIX 6.2: Elemental concentrations for black chert samples from the Bolan PassandJammu. 59?
APPENDIX 6.3: Elemental concentrations forblack chert samples from Sakesar Limestone,Salt Range, s94
APPENDIX 6.4: Elemental concentrations fortan-gray chert artifacts from Harappa and Nagwada. 594
APPENDIX 6.5: Elemental concentrations fortan-gray chertsamples from four Rohri Hills locations. s9S
APPENDIX 6.6: Elemental concentrations for tan-gray chert samples from Balochistan, the
NWFP and the Punjab.
APPENDIX 6.7: Standardized canonical discriminant function coefficients for figures in Chapter 6
generated using canonical discriminant analysis.
APPENDIX 7.1: Type, context and CDA prediction information for the unfirko steatite artifacts
from Harappa analyzed for this study.
APPENDIX 7.2, Steatite delosits ,n Pakistan Am, In,,,A SAM,.,.En e<,r th,s stu„v, L.
APPENDIX 7.3: INAA data for steatite ssaammipLletss c
APPENDIX 7.5: INAA data for unfired steatitf-aArKtinki-aA(t Tt
ADDPNiniV " IMAA Mkhrc.arh (MR) and Nai-sharo (NS). 6. s
A ,,|„,
unkn„wnI.„,.a,a,.te,U,R,an„1h.,:H,ssak(IH)an„M„at„„ IMTI.
APPKNI)IX-.8,Stan„ai>,„/.e„
APPENDIX7.9: Cluster Analysis (Complete linkage) of all steatite artifacts and geologic samples. 619
APPENDIX 7.10: Cluster Analysis (Complete linkage) of 140 steatite artifacts from Harappa. 6j4
APPENDIX 7.11: Cluster Analysis (Complete linkage) of all 177 steatite artifacts. 6j6
APPENDIX 7.12: Notes on experimental heating of black steatite from Mehrgarh. 640
APPENDIX 7.13: XRD characterization of six white beads from Mehrgarh. 647
APPENDIX 7.14:XRD AND EMPAcharacterization of steatite beads from Harappa, Loralai.
AND GOLA DhORO. 649
APPENDIX 7.15: EMPA, VP-SEM and XRD observations of a steatite seal boss from Harappa. 651
Introduction 651
Boss description and summary ofpast work on seal surfacc treatments 6^j
EMPA 655
VP-SEM/EDS 659
Surface layerin section 659
Micro-crack 661
Patchy exteriorsurface 665
XRD 666
Conclusion 667
APPENDIX 7.16: Heating and characterization of steatite from various geologic sources. 669
APPENDIX 7.17: Is it possible to source fired steatite artifacts using INAA? 678
Introduction 678
Experimental heating and INAA 678
Results 680
Conclusion 685
APPENDIX 8.1: INAAdata for agate samples from Ratanpur, Gujarat. 686
APPENDIX 8.2: INAAdata for agate samples from Mardak Bet, Gujarat. 687
APPENDIX 8.3: INAA data for agate SAMples from Khandek, Gujarat. 688
APPENDIX 8.4: INAA data for agate artifacts from Shahr-i-Sokhta, Iran. 688
APPENDIX 8.5: INAA data for agate artifacts from Harappa. 689
APPENDIX 8.6: INAA data for agate artifacts from Mehrgarh (AMR) AND Nausharo(ANS). •• 690
APPENDIX 8.7: INAA data for agate artifacts from Mohenjo-daro (AMD), Chanhu-daro (ACD)
and Nagwada (ANGW). 691
APPENDIX 88- First predicted group memberships (PGMs) for agate artifacts generated from
three CDAs IN Chapter 8. 691
APPENDIX 8 9- Standardized canonical discriminant function coefficients for the scatter and
box plots in C;hapter 8 generated using canonical discriminant analysis. 69?
APPENDIX 9.1: EMPA of archaeological and geologic vesuvianite-grossular samples. 694
Archacological fragments ^94
(ieologii Samples
APPENDIX 9^ Anai VSKS ofvesuvianite-grossui ar fragments from Mohenjo-daro. 698
APPENDIX 9VXRD of massivf vfsuvianitf from Kumbhai garh 1-orest, Rajasthan. 699
APPENDIX 9.4: INAA data for vesuvianite-grossular samples from Harappa and Mohenjo-daro
(MDV). 700
APPENDIX9.5: INAAdata for vesuvianite-grossular samples from Sakhakot-Qila (FATA-SQ) and
Taleri MohammedJan (B-TMJ). 701
APPENDIX 9.6: INAA DATA FORvesuvianite-grossular samples from Kumbhalgarh Forest Reserve,
Rajasthan (Raj-K). 701
APPENDIX 9.7: Standardized canonical discriminant function coefficients for Figure 9.8. 701
APPENDIX 9.8: Six alternate clustering strategies using the vesuvianite-grossular comparative
data. 703
APPENDIX 9.9: Isthe vesuvianite-grossular / "Ernestite" association genuine? 704
APPENDIX 10.1:Sulfur and strontium isotope values for alabaster artifacts from Harappa,
Mohenjo-daro, RehmanDheri AND Musa Khel. yog
APPENDIX 10.2: Sulfur and strontium isotope values for geologic samples of alabaster from
sources inthe Sulaiman Mountains, Salt Range and Kohat. 709
APPENDIX 10.3: List of pink bi-pyramidal quartz crystals (Mari "Diamonds") from Harappa. 710
APPENDIX 11.1: Archaeological limestonesamples from Harappa analyzed for this study. 711
APPENDIX 11.2: Results of ICP-MS analysis of the initial limestone set. y,^
APPENDIX 11.3: Results of INAA analysis of the initial limestone set.
APPENDIX 11.4: Results of ICP-AES analysis of the expanded geologic limestone sampleset. - - 717
APPENDIX 11.5: Results of ICP-AES analysis of the expanded Harappan limestone sample set. --- 711
APPENDIX 11.6: Standardized canonical discriminant function coefficients for figures in
Chapter i i generated using canonical discriminant analysis. 72,6
APPENDIX 11.7: Hierarchical cluster analysis of initial limestone samples set INAA data. 717
APPENDIX 12.1: Pb isotope DATA forore samples from LEAD deposits in India, Pakistan and Oman. - 718
APPENDIX 12.2: Context and Pb isotope data for 19 archaeological lead ore fragments from
Harappa.
735 APPENDIX 12.3: Pb isotope data for lead artifacts, slags, lumps and residues from Harappa. 7,6
APPENDIX 12.4: Pb isotope data for lead artifacts from Shahr-i-Sokhta. Mundigak, Mehrgarh,
Nausharo, Gola Dhoro and Mohenjo-daro.
APPENDIX 12.5: PB .SOTOPE data for silver artifacts from Allahdino. Mohenjo-daro, Mundigak,
Gola Dhoro and Nagwada. APPENDIX 12.6: P„ ISOTOPE data for the argentiferous galena deposit at Nakhlak IRAN . Z
APPENDIX 12.7: XRD AND Pb ISOTOPE ANALYSES OF modern lead OBJECTS AND SUBSTANCES
APPENDIX 12.8: p. ISOTOPE DATA FOR COPPER ORES AND SLAGS FROM DEPOSITS IN InDIA, PAKISTAN ,RAN
AND Oman.
APPENDIX 12.9: Pb isotope data for seven copper ores from Harappa
APPENDIX 1.V1: POSSIBLE ROUTES FROM THE I.DUS BaSIN TO THE SITE OF ShORTUGHAL ^
9788173048593 (series) 9788173048609 (v. 1) 9788173048616 (v. 2) 9788173048623 (v. 3) 9788173049101 (v. 4) 9788173049118 (v. 5) 9788173049125 (v. 6) 9788173049293 (v. 7) 9788173049309 (v. 8: pts. 12) 9788173049484 (v. 9)
Indus civilization.
Excavations (Archaeology)--India.
India--Antiquities
954.01 LAW/C
"An earlier version of this work was published under the title Linguistic archaeology and the human past in 2008"--T.p. verso. Vol. 5: edited by Viveka Dangi. Vol. 8, pt. 1 (text) has subtitle: Inter-regional interaction and urbanism in the ancient Indus valley : a geological provinience study of Harappa's rock and mineral assemblage / Randall William Law ; v. 8, pt. 2: Appendices and references
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Foreword Toshiki Osada i
Preface Jonathan Mark Kenoyer iii
Acknowledgements vii
Dedication
CHAPTER 1- OBJECTIVE, OVERVIEW AND THEORY, HARAPPA AND LINES OFINQUIRY i
Chapter introduction - The principal research objective i
Indus Civilization overview AND theoretical ORIENTATION j
TtjeIndus Civilization ?
Urbanism and itspreconditions 4
Inter-regional interaction, long-distance trade and the controlofessential resources 6
Rock and mineralartifacts andgeologicprovenience analysis 11
Harappa '5
Generallocation and layout 14
History ofdiscovery andresearch '4
Harappa's rock and mineralartifact assemblage ><5
Harappa's chronological/culturalsequence 17
Ravi Phase - Period i (> J300 BC-ca.iSoo BC) • . >9
Kot Diji Phase - Period i (ca.iSoo BC to i6oo BC)
Harappa Phase - Period 3(i6oo BC to 1900 BC)
Period 5A
Period jB
Period ?C
Transitional and Late Harappa Phases - Periods 4&5(1900 BC toNon-habitation areas at Harappa ^4
Three LINES OF INQUIRY
First line of inquiry - Harappan interaction/acquisition networks and their extent ^4
Second line ofinquiry - Diachronic changes ininteraction/acquisition patterns
Two ancillary queries conccrning diachronic changes
Diachronic changes in assemblage composition
Diachronic changes in the acquisition and use ofbulk stone goods 18
Hjird line ofinquiry - Site-wise synchronic variations ^9
Chapter c;onc:lusion-An OUTLINE OFTHIS BOOK
CHAPTER2-HARAPPA INCONTEXT "
Chapter introduction - The Greater Indus region ^'
(iF.OGRAPHKCONTKXT "
(iFOI.C)GIC CONTEXT "
10
10
11
II
11
17
18
TheAlluvial Plains 35
The Highlands 35
Temporal-cultural CONTEXTS 36
Traditions, eras and phases 37
Ancient settlements ofthe upper Indus Basin 37
The transforming cultural landscapes oftheIndus Tradition 40
Regionalization era(Early Harappan Period) 41
ca. 3300 to iSooBC 41
1800 to 1600 BC 43
Integration era - 2600 to 1900BC 45
Localization era- 1900 BC to Chapter conclusion 48
CHAPTER 3- STRATEGIES AND METHODS FOR SOURCING STONE AND METAL ARTIFACTS •••• 49
Chapter introduction - Strategies and methods 49
Research strategies
Usingprimarygeologic reference materials to locatepotentialsources 5o
Field-checkingandsamplingpotential Harappan rock and mineralsources 51
Tapping othersources ofinformation:Johris, pansaris andpattarwalas ^4
We "Provenience Postulate"anddefiningageographic scale ofprovenience resolution 56
Methods of material identification and characterization
Visualinspection/comparison and basic mineralogical testing ^g
X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis ^^
Electron microprobe analysis (EMPA)
Spectrometric analysis
Instrumental neutron activation analysis (INAA) 61
Mf.THODS of DATA analysis
Preliminary data analysis / bivariateplotting 61
Multivariate approaches 63
Choice ofmethods (, ^
Canonical Discriminant Analysis (, ^
Discrimination
Classification (and misclassification)
ClusterAnalysis
6s Chapter conclusion - Statements of provenience c->s
C:HAI>TER 4- THE ROCK AND MINERAL. ARTEKACT ASSEMBLAtiE AT HARAPPA
TROIUK TION - ORt.ANIZINti AND I'RESENTINC THK ROttK AND MINERAL ASSEMBLAGE
Determining the comeosition oe the rock and mineral artieact assemblage 6»
Major roc k and mineral varieties
Steatite
Microcrystalline silicates
Chert
Agate-Jasper
Siliciclastic sedimentary rocks
Copper and copper minerals
Minor ROCK AND MINERAL VARIETIES
Vesuvianite-Grossular
Igneous andMetamorphic rocks
Gypsum
Limestone
Chalk
Variegated andfossiUferous limestone
Lapis Lazuli go
Crystalline quartz go
Gold 8,
"Emestite" 8j
Amazonite 84
"Ochre"minerals 84
Lead minerals 85
Serpentine 85
Miscellaneous rock and mineral varieties 86
Almandinegarnet 86
Calcite 86
Fluorite 86
Fossils 88
Kaolinite claystone 88
Mica 88
Nephritejade 88
Prehnite 89
Sulfur 89
Tourmaline 89
Turquoise 89
Material varieties at Harappa known only from previous excavations 9,
Silver 91
Arsenical minerals: Lollingite and Orpiment 92,
Fuller's F.arth 9^
Spatial and temporal aspects of Harappas rock and mineral assemblage 9^
C.ontextualizing the rock and mineralassemblage 9^
The spatialand temporaldistribution ofthe rock and mineral assemblage 9,
Spatialand temporal variations tn the rock and mineral assemblage 9^
Interpretation of the rock and mineral assemblage's composition and variability 100
79
ChapterCONCLUSION '°-
CHAPTER5- GRINDINGSTONE ACQUISITION NETWORKS io?
Chapter introduction-The importance of GRiNDiNGSTONES 103
Potential grindingstone sources in and around the upper Indus Basin 104
The Kirana Hills 104
The Sulaiman Range 107
The SaltRange 107
Bikanerarea occurrences 107
Thefoothills zone ofthe Himalayas 107
Tosham Hills andAravalli Outliers 107
Determining the geologic provenience of Harappa's grindingstones 113
The geologic provenience composition of Harappa's grindingstone assemblage 114
Pab sandstone 115
Delhi quartzite 119
Gray sandstone 111
Kirana Hills stone ' ^ i
"Unknown" Provenience ' ^ 3
DIACHRONIC and spatial variations in grindingstone source utilization at HaRAPPA 11}
Site-wise diachronic trends ingrindingstone source utilization ' ^S
Ravi Phase - Period i (ca. 3300 BCto2800 BC) ' ^5
Kot Diji Phase - Period 2(2800 to 2600 BC) 116
Harappa Phase - Period3A (2600 to 2430 BC) iig
Harappa Phase - Period3B (24^0 to 2200 BC)
Harappa Phase - Period3C (2200 to 1900 BC) andsurface/disturbed contextfinds ,^^
TransitionalandLate Harappa Phase - Periods4 (ca. igoo to <1300 BC) ^
Discussion - Patterns of grindingstone acquisition and discard at Harappa ,3,
Brief remarks on grindingstone AcquisiTiON patterns AT otherIndus cities , 2.
Chapter conclusion
143
CHAPTER 6- CHERT ACQUISITION NETWORKS
Chapter introduction-The three main types of chert AT Harappa ',44
Chert in the Greater Indus region
,, ,, I4S C,hert at Harappa Purple ch„t/c„.lchdonv.mhothbr m.mor E.kl, Har.pp., su„.var,et,e7. '.^9
Black-brown chert
Potential iounes ofblack-hrawn chert
I Sakcsar I.imcstonc. Salt Range, Punjab
(.rtat I imcstonc, |ammu
I Moro Formation. Bolan Pass. Balochistan ,
—
INAA/CDA comparison ofblack chert artifacts to potential sources 161
Tan-Gray (Rohri?) CHERT i6j
Rohri Hills, Sindh j<5^
Rohri 164
Adam Sultan
KotDiji
Kandarki j
Otherpotentialsources oftan-gray chert ^
Mohmand Agency, NWFP ^
Kalat, Balochistan ^^^
BuriKhel, Salt Range, Punjab
Tan-gray chertsources not included in this study ,
INAA/CDA comparison oftan-gray chert artifacts to potentialsources ,y^
Chapter CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 7-STEATITE ACQUISITION NETWORKS 178
Chapter introduction - "steatite civilization" 178
Steatite in the Indus Tradition 179
The steatite assemblage at Harappaand samples selectedfor thisstudy 181
Steatite samplesfrom otherprehistoric sites 186
Identifying potential steatite sources for Indus Tradition peoples 189
Steatitepetrogenesis 189
Samplinggeologic sources 192
Steatite occurrences oftheGreater Indus region 19^
Steatiteoccurrences in Balochistan 193
Las Bela District 193
Kalat District 197
Zhob District 197
Steatite occurrences in theNWFP, FATA and Northern Areas 199
Kurram Agency 199
KhyberAgency 101
Peshawar District 101
Mohmand Agency 101
Chitral District 2,01
Northern Areas 2,02
Swat District ^04
Hazara District
Steatite occurrences in the Himalayas
Jammu and Kashmir 2^0^
Himachal Pradesh 2.07
Uttaranchai 208
Steatite occurrences in Rajasthan 2.08
Northern Rajasthan 109
Jhunjhunu District Z09
Alwar and Dausa districts 109
Southern Rajasthan 109
Dolomiticoccurrences sampled 11 z
Ultramafic occurrences sampled 112
Steatiteoccurrences in Gujarat 211
Abriefnote onsteatite occurrences in other regions 11 j
AGEOLOGIC PROVENIENCE STUDY OF STEATITE ARTIFACTS FROM HaRAPPA AND SEVEN OTHER SITES " ZI J
Pastgeologicprovenience studies ofsteatite artifacts j^
Details andresults ofthe present study ^j^
Initial CDA and CA comparisons ofall steatite artifacts to the geologic sources 115
Unfired steatite artifacts from Harappa j
Canonicaldiscriminantanalyses ^^,
Cluster analyses 2^2^^
Interpretation ofthe results 1j1
Type associations ^j2
Addressing the three lines ofinquiry 2.3 4
Unfired steatite artifacts from othersites 2.41
Mohenjo-daro 143
Mitathal 2.4$
Mehrgarh and Nausharo 2.45
"Unknown" Loralai site
Nagwada and GolaDhoro
Tepe Hissar
^ 151 Addendum: Recent findings from Dholavira and Rakhigarhi ^^^
Summary AND DISCUSSION
i54 Indus Tradition steatiteacquisition networks (provisional} ^
Heat-treatingsteatiteandthe desirefor "white-firing"stone ^^^
Chapter CONCLUSION
i6i
CHAPTER 8 - AGATE ACQUISITION NETWORKS
161
Chapter introduction - Sourcing Harappan agate
z6i Geoloov and potential sources of agate .n the Greater Indus recon and beyond
Theformation ofagateandagate deposits
165
Potential Harappan agate sources
166
Agate deposits in Gujarat
166
Southeastern Gujarat - Ratanpur area deposits
Northern Gujarat
170
Khandek, Eastern Kutch
171
Mardak Bet, Little Rann ofKutch
EasternGujarat and Saurashtra
Agate deposits elsewhere in SouthAsia
Peninsular, Centraland Eastern India o
Z78
Northern deposits
179
Sindh and Balochistan
z8o
Agate deposits beyond the Greater Indus region
Section conclusion
2,82 AGEOLOGIC PROVENIENCE STUDY OF AGATE ARTIFACTS FROM HaRAPPA AND FIVE OTHER SITES 183
Agatesource andproxy sourcesampks
283
Agate artifacts
Artifacts from Harappa
Artifacts from five other Indus Tradition sites ^gg
Analysis andcomparison ^
Interpretation (andqualification) oftheresults
Artifacts from Harappa
Artifacts from the five other Indus Tradition sites
Chapter CONCLUSION
CHAPTER 9-VESUVIANITE-GROSSULARACQUISITION NETWORKS 300
Chapter Introduction - Harappan "Jade"
The mineralogy OF VESUVIANITE-GROSSULAR jqq
Characterization andidentificationof vesuvianite-grossular at Harappa 301
Is VESUVIANITE-GROSSULAR HaRAPPAN "JADE"? jOS
Where didthe vesuvianite-grossular acquiredby Harappans come from? 307
Potential vesuvianite-grossular sources in India 3
Potential vesuvianite-grossularsources in Pakistan 3jj
An INAA comparison ofvesuvianite-grossular artifacts to samples from three sources 3,2,
Was vesuvianite-grossularexportedto Mesopotamia from the Greater Indus region? 316
Vesuvianite-grossular at Harappa and its association with "Ernestite" 318
Chapter conclusion
32.4
CHAPTER 10-ALABASTER ACQUISITION NETWORKS
Chapter Introduction - The different forms of gypsum at Indus Civilization sites 315
Alabaster AT Harappa
Potential sources of Harappan alabaster
319 Gypsum occurrences that are not alabastersources ^^^
Indus Alluvium/Thar Desert
32.9
Western Sindh
330
Gujarat
Salt Range
333
The SulaimanRange 334
Kohat 33S
Otherpotentialalabastersources 336
Afghanistan 336
Hazara(NWFP) 336
Jammu and Kashmir 336
Western Himalayas 336
Determining the geologic provenience of Harappan alabaster artifacts 337
Geologic background - Marine evaporites andisotope curvesforSand Srinseawater 337
The sulfur curve 338
The strontium curve 339
Sulfur andstrontium isotope analyses ofgeologic sources and Harappan artifacts ^40
Sulfur isotope analysis andresults
Strontium isotope analysis and results j4
Bivariate plotting ofthe Sand Sr analysis data
Chronologicalandspatialinterpretation ofalabasterprovenience determinations ^
Characterization of Mari "Diamonds" from Harappa j
Chapter conclusion 352.
CHAPTER 11-LIMESTONE ACQUISITIONNETWORKS 354
Chapter introduction - Limestone 354
Large limestone objects at Harappa and other Indus cities 554
Types OF limestone USED AT Harappa AND their potential sources
Sandylimestones
Banded yellow-brown andyellow-brown sandy limestone (BANDED)
Bright yellow-red sandy limestone (GOLDEN)
Gray-red sandy limestone (GRAY)
Three possible source formations for the sandy limestones used at Harappa ^^4
Micritic and white chalky-porcelaneous limestones (MICRITICand WHITE) ^^j
Section summary ^
Geologic provenience studies of Harappan limestone artifacts
Past studies, choice ofinstrumentation andpresentation ofdata
The archaeological andgeologic limestone datasets
Sample preparation, analysis and data evaluation
373
Pilot study usinf^ the initialsample set
ICP-MSanalysis of the initial set
^7S
INAA of the initial set
376
ICP-AES analysis of the initial set
^-'6
Analysis of the expanded set using IC!P-AES
(omparisons at the level ofgeologic formation ^
Banded yellow-brown and yellow brown sandy limestone ,^,
Bright or "GOLDEN" yellow-red sandy limestone (Jaisalmer stone?) 383
GRAY-red sandy limestone 3^6
Micritic limestone 388
WHITE chalky porcelaneous limestone 388
Sectionsummary 39°
Discussion - Large limestone objects at Harappa in context 591
Chapter conclusion 395
CHAPTER 12-LEAD,SILVERAND COPPER ACQUISITION NETWORKS 396
Chapter introduction - Metals 596
Lead, lead ARTIFACTS AND artifacts CONTAINING OR derived FROM LEAD 397
Lead ISOTOPEANALYSIS 397
EDTAsampling ofleadandsilver artifacts and analysis usingICP-MS J98
PresentingandplottingPb isotope data 4oo
Lead AND SILVER
The Pb isotope database ofpotential Harappan leadandsilversources 401
Lead deposits in Balochistan 403
Lead deposits in the NWFP 4os
Lead deposits in Jammu and Kashmir 4o6
Lead deposits in Himachal Pradesh and Lfttaranchal 4o8
Lead deposits in Rajasthan and Gujarat 411
Lead deposits elsewhere in South Asia 4' 5
Lead deposits inOman and Iran 415
Afghanistan
Plottingand evaluating the Pb isotope datafor South Asian lead deposits 4'7
Determining the probablegeologicproveniences ofleadartifactsfrom Harappa 4io
Lead ores
"Finished" lead artifacts 4i 3
Lead slags and lumps 42.6
Lead residues
Isotopic assays ofleadandsilver artifactsfrom otherprehistoric sites 432-
The sites and artifacts 43?
Results
Lead artifacts 441
Silver artifacts 44i
Interpretation ofthe Pb isotope datafor lead and silver artifactsfrom allsites 443
Ongoing studies ofleadandsilver artifacts and sources 446
Copper
Copper ore at Harappa 447
Ihe Phisotope database for copper ore sources 447
The Aravallis
TheHimalayas 450
Sources westof the IndusValley 451
Iran 453
Oman 45}
Analysis and results 454
Abriefnote onfurtherandongoingstudies ofHarappan copper 456
Comparison OF THE LEAD AND COPPER DATASETS 456
Chapter CONCLUSION 459
CHAPTER 13-SUMMARYANDDISCUSSION 461
Chapter INTRODUCTION 461
Summary 461
Ravi Phase - Period i (ca. 3300 BCto 2S00 BC) 463
Kot DijiPhase - Period2 (2800 to 2600 BC) 464
Harappa Phase - PeriodjA (2600 to 2450 BC) 464
Harappa Phase - PeriodjB (24^0 to2200 BC) 466
Harappa Phase - Period3C(2200 toipoo BC) 466
Transitionaland LateHarappa Phase - Periods 4&s (ca. 1900 to <1300 BC) 468
Provenience datafrom otherprehistoric sites - Seventh tothird millennium BC 468
Addressing the THREE LINES OF inquiry 471
Discussion 481
The development andnature ofHarappan rock andmineralacquisition networks 483
Competition andthe control ofessential resources 485
Harappan inter-cultural relationships
Theprimary rock and mineral resource catchment areas ofIndus cities
Harappas primary rock and mineral catchment area
Projected primary catchment areas for other Indus Civilization cities
Abriefconsideration ofundetected acquisition patterns at Harappa 496
Chapter conclusion
CHAPTER 14 - CONCLUDING REMARKS
Accomplishments andfuture directions
APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1.1: Provenience vs. Provenance.
APPENDIX 2.1: Major divisions of geologic time.
APPENDIX 2.1 Remarks and observations on the attr.t.on oe stone ,n r.vhrbeos
APPENDIX 3.1: Mohs' Mineral Hardness scale.
APPENDIX 4.1: X.RAV D.EERACT.ON analyses OE HaRAEEAN rock and mNERA,. art,pacts.
APPENDIX 4.2: Representative XRD scans.
492.
491
495
499
500
Soo
505
506
so-'
S'l
sn
S I s
A.Steatite fragment H1000/2084-1
B. Steatite fragment Hiooo/898 j-3
C.Steatite fragment H95/5719-99
D. Copper ore fragment H90/1070-12 ^^^
E. Copper ore fragment H95/4943-8 ^^^
EComposite offour XRD scans ofvesuvianite-grossular garnet fragments ^^
G. Alabaster fragment H2000/9999-130 ^^g
H. Lapis lazuliblocklet H2000/9999-77
I. "Ernestite" fragment Hiooo/3317-4 ^^g
J. "Ernestite" fragment Hzooo/3317-3
K. "Ochre" fragment H90/3073-7.4
L."Ochre" fragment Hiooo/9999-121
M. Leadorefragment H90/3011-147
N. Lead orefragment H99/8857-1
O. Leadorefragment H90/3193-6
P. Serpentine fragment H94/4999-13
Q. Serpentine beadH2000/9508-2
R. Calcite fragment H2000/2110-77
S.Eluorite fragment H97/6977-7
T.Mica fragment H87/62.
U. Prehnite fragment H96/6303-475
V. Sulfiir fragment 1^96/6219-43
W.Turquoise fragment H94/4999-213
X.Chagai "turquoise" sample from J.-E Jarrige
APPENDIX 4.3:Characterization of two basalt artifacts using EMPA.
APPENDIX 4.4: The Lapis Lazuli Question.
Introduction ^^^g
Lapis lazuli in Ancient South Asia ^^g
Potential Harappan lapis lazuli sources ^^i
Doubts about asource oflapis lazuli in the Chagai Hills ^^,
Asulfur isotope study oflapis lazuli artifacts and source samples ^ ^
The sample set
Samplepreparation and analysis ^^^
Results
Recent lapis lazuli provenience research using othertechniques
Conclusion
APPENDIX 4.5: The "Ernestite" Problem.
"Ernestite"
XRD analysis of"Ernestite"
EMPA of"Ernestite"
515
515
519
519
519
520
520
510
521
521
511
522
522
5i3
5iJ
52-4
52.4
515
540
541
541
544
544
547
Whatis"Ernestite" ? ^49
Where does "Ernestice" come from? ^^^
"Ernestite" as adrill-making material 55?
Conclusion
Addendum -A small test ^^
APPENDIX 4.6: A Late Harappan Kaolinite Bead.
Discovery
Identification
VP-SEM 556
XRD 558
Conclusion
APPENDIX 4.7: The identification, characterization and potential sources of a nephrite jade
amulet recovered from the cemetery area at HaRAPPA. 561
Description and discovery 561
Identification and characterization S^ •
XRD S6i
yP-SEM
Conclusion 5^5
Potential sources 5^ ?
Possibilities for future studies S68
APPENDIX 5-1: All querns and mullers (whole and fragmentary) recovered from
excavations and surveys at Harappa from 1986 to 1004. 569
APPENDIX 5.2: Grindingstones in the Harappa Museum from pre-1986 excavations. 591
APPENDIX 6.1:Elemental concentrations for 9 black chert artifacts from Harappa. 59^
APPENDIX 6.2: Elemental concentrations for black chert samples from the Bolan PassandJammu. 59?
APPENDIX 6.3: Elemental concentrations forblack chert samples from Sakesar Limestone,Salt Range, s94
APPENDIX 6.4: Elemental concentrations fortan-gray chert artifacts from Harappa and Nagwada. 594
APPENDIX 6.5: Elemental concentrations fortan-gray chertsamples from four Rohri Hills locations. s9S
APPENDIX 6.6: Elemental concentrations for tan-gray chert samples from Balochistan, the
NWFP and the Punjab.
APPENDIX 6.7: Standardized canonical discriminant function coefficients for figures in Chapter 6
generated using canonical discriminant analysis.
APPENDIX 7.1: Type, context and CDA prediction information for the unfirko steatite artifacts
from Harappa analyzed for this study.
APPENDIX 7.2, Steatite delosits ,n Pakistan Am, In,,,A SAM,.,.En e<,r th,s stu„v, L.
APPENDIX 7.3: INAA data for steatite ssaammipLletss c
APPENDIX 7.5: INAA data for unfired steatitf-aArKtinki-aA(t Tt
ADDPNiniV " IMAA Mkhrc.arh (MR) and Nai-sharo (NS). 6. s
A ,,|„,
unkn„wnI.„,.a,a,.te,U,R,an„1h.,:H,ssak(IH)an„M„at„„ IMTI.
APPKNI)IX-.8,Stan„ai>,„/.e„
APPENDIX7.9: Cluster Analysis (Complete linkage) of all steatite artifacts and geologic samples. 619
APPENDIX 7.10: Cluster Analysis (Complete linkage) of 140 steatite artifacts from Harappa. 6j4
APPENDIX 7.11: Cluster Analysis (Complete linkage) of all 177 steatite artifacts. 6j6
APPENDIX 7.12: Notes on experimental heating of black steatite from Mehrgarh. 640
APPENDIX 7.13: XRD characterization of six white beads from Mehrgarh. 647
APPENDIX 7.14:XRD AND EMPAcharacterization of steatite beads from Harappa, Loralai.
AND GOLA DhORO. 649
APPENDIX 7.15: EMPA, VP-SEM and XRD observations of a steatite seal boss from Harappa. 651
Introduction 651
Boss description and summary ofpast work on seal surfacc treatments 6^j
EMPA 655
VP-SEM/EDS 659
Surface layerin section 659
Micro-crack 661
Patchy exteriorsurface 665
XRD 666
Conclusion 667
APPENDIX 7.16: Heating and characterization of steatite from various geologic sources. 669
APPENDIX 7.17: Is it possible to source fired steatite artifacts using INAA? 678
Introduction 678
Experimental heating and INAA 678
Results 680
Conclusion 685
APPENDIX 8.1: INAAdata for agate samples from Ratanpur, Gujarat. 686
APPENDIX 8.2: INAAdata for agate samples from Mardak Bet, Gujarat. 687
APPENDIX 8.3: INAA data for agate SAMples from Khandek, Gujarat. 688
APPENDIX 8.4: INAA data for agate artifacts from Shahr-i-Sokhta, Iran. 688
APPENDIX 8.5: INAA data for agate artifacts from Harappa. 689
APPENDIX 8.6: INAA data for agate artifacts from Mehrgarh (AMR) AND Nausharo(ANS). •• 690
APPENDIX 8.7: INAA data for agate artifacts from Mohenjo-daro (AMD), Chanhu-daro (ACD)
and Nagwada (ANGW). 691
APPENDIX 88- First predicted group memberships (PGMs) for agate artifacts generated from
three CDAs IN Chapter 8. 691
APPENDIX 8 9- Standardized canonical discriminant function coefficients for the scatter and
box plots in C;hapter 8 generated using canonical discriminant analysis. 69?
APPENDIX 9.1: EMPA of archaeological and geologic vesuvianite-grossular samples. 694
Archacological fragments ^94
(ieologii Samples
APPENDIX 9^ Anai VSKS ofvesuvianite-grossui ar fragments from Mohenjo-daro. 698
APPENDIX 9VXRD of massivf vfsuvianitf from Kumbhai garh 1-orest, Rajasthan. 699
APPENDIX 9.4: INAA data for vesuvianite-grossular samples from Harappa and Mohenjo-daro
(MDV). 700
APPENDIX9.5: INAAdata for vesuvianite-grossular samples from Sakhakot-Qila (FATA-SQ) and
Taleri MohammedJan (B-TMJ). 701
APPENDIX 9.6: INAA DATA FORvesuvianite-grossular samples from Kumbhalgarh Forest Reserve,
Rajasthan (Raj-K). 701
APPENDIX 9.7: Standardized canonical discriminant function coefficients for Figure 9.8. 701
APPENDIX 9.8: Six alternate clustering strategies using the vesuvianite-grossular comparative
data. 703
APPENDIX 9.9: Isthe vesuvianite-grossular / "Ernestite" association genuine? 704
APPENDIX 10.1:Sulfur and strontium isotope values for alabaster artifacts from Harappa,
Mohenjo-daro, RehmanDheri AND Musa Khel. yog
APPENDIX 10.2: Sulfur and strontium isotope values for geologic samples of alabaster from
sources inthe Sulaiman Mountains, Salt Range and Kohat. 709
APPENDIX 10.3: List of pink bi-pyramidal quartz crystals (Mari "Diamonds") from Harappa. 710
APPENDIX 11.1: Archaeological limestonesamples from Harappa analyzed for this study. 711
APPENDIX 11.2: Results of ICP-MS analysis of the initial limestone set. y,^
APPENDIX 11.3: Results of INAA analysis of the initial limestone set.
APPENDIX 11.4: Results of ICP-AES analysis of the expanded geologic limestone sampleset. - - 717
APPENDIX 11.5: Results of ICP-AES analysis of the expanded Harappan limestone sample set. --- 711
APPENDIX 11.6: Standardized canonical discriminant function coefficients for figures in
Chapter i i generated using canonical discriminant analysis. 72,6
APPENDIX 11.7: Hierarchical cluster analysis of initial limestone samples set INAA data. 717
APPENDIX 12.1: Pb isotope DATA forore samples from LEAD deposits in India, Pakistan and Oman. - 718
APPENDIX 12.2: Context and Pb isotope data for 19 archaeological lead ore fragments from
Harappa.
735 APPENDIX 12.3: Pb isotope data for lead artifacts, slags, lumps and residues from Harappa. 7,6
APPENDIX 12.4: Pb isotope data for lead artifacts from Shahr-i-Sokhta. Mundigak, Mehrgarh,
Nausharo, Gola Dhoro and Mohenjo-daro.
APPENDIX 12.5: PB .SOTOPE data for silver artifacts from Allahdino. Mohenjo-daro, Mundigak,
Gola Dhoro and Nagwada. APPENDIX 12.6: P„ ISOTOPE data for the argentiferous galena deposit at Nakhlak IRAN . Z
APPENDIX 12.7: XRD AND Pb ISOTOPE ANALYSES OF modern lead OBJECTS AND SUBSTANCES
APPENDIX 12.8: p. ISOTOPE DATA FOR COPPER ORES AND SLAGS FROM DEPOSITS IN InDIA, PAKISTAN ,RAN
AND Oman.
APPENDIX 12.9: Pb isotope data for seven copper ores from Harappa
APPENDIX 1.V1: POSSIBLE ROUTES FROM THE I.DUS BaSIN TO THE SITE OF ShORTUGHAL ^
9788173048593 (series) 9788173048609 (v. 1) 9788173048616 (v. 2) 9788173048623 (v. 3) 9788173049101 (v. 4) 9788173049118 (v. 5) 9788173049125 (v. 6) 9788173049293 (v. 7) 9788173049309 (v. 8: pts. 12) 9788173049484 (v. 9)
Indus civilization.
Excavations (Archaeology)--India.
India--Antiquities
954.01 LAW/C